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B.A 1st Sem Understanding India Unit 1 The Idea of Bharatvarsha
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Unit 1 The Idea of Bharatvarsha
Short Notes:
(a) Pali Literature.
Ans: The term “Pali” denotes a set of sacred texts of the Buddhists. The nature of literature in Pali language is basically religious and philosophical. Pali literature has a rich collection of Buddhist texts and scriptures. The basic and the most important part of the teachings of Buddha is called as “Tipitika”. It is said that most of the original teachings of Buddha are contained in Tipitika. Still some people insist that Pali Tipitika has the original teachings of Buddha. Read on further to know more about Pali language litera-ture.
The 2500-year-old Theravada tradition is carefully preserved in Pali. It is famously known as “Buddhavachana”, which means words of Buddha. It is said that the most genuine form of the teachings of Buddha are preserved in Pali literature and that it was known as Magadhi. To know more about Plai literature, continue to read this insightful article on it.
History of Pali Literature:
Pali literature claimed to be an actual speech of Buddha. The very foundation of Buddhism is contained in these texts and the society takes maximum pains to make sure that they are carefully preserved. Pali signifies the very tenet of Buddhism.
Pali is a very refined and pure language that was spoken during the early years of 600-200 B.C. This was the time period of the Indo-Aryan era in the continent. It was widely spoken by people not only in India but in neighboring countries as well. Though it is not spoken in the contemporary world, it has left behind a rich heritage of literature that is relevant to the socio-cultural environment of not only India, but also countries like Thailand, Sri Lanka and other neighboring countries
Use of Pali Language In Buddhist Canons:
The actual historical development of Pali Tipitika has not been well investigated as yet. Although, it is a known fact that Tipitika was put together in different councils. There are factual proofs that Theravada Tipitika was compiled in the council of King Vattagamani Abhaya from the 1st century B.C. It was in this council, known as the 4th council that the Pali Tipitika was formally written down because until now it was only handed down from generation to generation orally. After the demise of the Buddha, the Ist council took place immediately. It happened in the Saptaparni cave near Rajgriha.
Mahakassapathera took its chairmanship. This was a grand council and over 500 disciples took part in it, including Upali and Ananda. These disciples recited the teachings of Buddha, as they heard from him. It is through this recitation that the Buddhist discourses and monastic rules were set. This grand recitation marked the beginning of the tipitika. It did not only begin for the Theravada school but for all the other Buddhist schools. It is documented in the history and written by Hiuen Tsang that after one hundred and ten years of the Ist council, the second council took place.
It took place in Valukarama in Vaishali. Here, around seven hundred Bikhshus took participation in the council. It is said that this convention took place to pacify the discrepancies in the earlier construction of the monastic rules. These reconstructed teachings were not writ-ten down even in 3rd century B.C.in the 2nd council. In 3rd century B.C., during Emperor Ashoka’s reign, Buddhism went through a harsh division and ended up being divided into many different sects. Ashoka himself was a rigorous and devoted follower and leader of the Theravada school.
He called on a council to finally settle down the tipitika according to the school he belonged to, that is the Theravada School. He sent off his son Mahindathera and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri lanka in order to spread the newly reformed Tipitika in that country, Orally. It is not known as to what language his Tipitika was carried out in. It is presumed that it must have did this been some form of Praktit language but it is for certain that by this time Pali was not used in the Tipitika oral tradition.
Pali is divided into two different divisions; one of the divisions consists of these three pitakas and the other division consists of canonical texts other than these three pitakas. Pali canonical division consists of nine parts or limbs or ‘angas’: Sutta –prose like teachings and sermons of Buddha, Geyya musical and prose like sermons, Vaiyakarana elucidations, Gatha teachings in the form of verses, Udana blissful remarks of Buddha, Itivuttaker concise quotes, Jatakas tales about the reincarnations of Buddha, Abbhuta Dhamma -narrative of mystical powers of Buddha and Vedalla -questions and answers solving life and spiritual que s.
Tipitika consists of Vinaya Pitaka. Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhammapitaka. These are the different parts of Buddha’s teach-ings. There were two major chronicles that got compiled in Sri Lanka during the period when Asoka’s children were spreading the teachings of Buddha in that country, these were Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. Dipavamsa gives a description of the time when Bud-dha stayed in Sri Lanka. And Mahavamsa is a decorative prose on Buddha and his teachings.
(b) Sanskrit Literature.
Ans: India is a land of rich classical heritage. The land of many great thinkers and writers, our collection of literature in Sanskrit is priceless. Known as the mother of many languages, Sanskrit is abundant in the treasure of literature. Many people think of Sanskrit in terms of chants, hymns and verses. Not many know the vast collection of poetry, drama, stories and even epics in Sanskrit litera-ture. Sanskrit language literature is a very broad category that requires elaborate understanding of this varied language. In our related sections, you shall find information about various Sanskrit epics, plays and major Sanskrit pioneers of India.
With time, the definition of classical Sanskrit literature has also changed. It used to be primarily a source of gaining knowledge and was used a lot during religious rituals. Now, Sanskrit has become a language that is solely seen as an entity for entertainment. People follow Sanskrit to amuse themselves rather than gain knowledge.
People may go to see plays or listen to legendary folk tales in Sanskrit with the sole aim of entertaining themselves. Priests who perform religious rituals use pure Sanskrit in India. Though attempts are being made to revive this ancient language in India, it will be a long time before people realize the value of this ancient language in the contemporary world.
As we progress by leaps and bounds in the 21st Century, we fail to value some of the most important things of life. More often than not, they form the backbone of our progress and give us our own identity in this era of globalization. This ancient classical language is a plethora of knowledge that is useful even in this century. We only need to use it judiciously in the right way and it is never too late to learn.
Classical Sanskrit Literature:
Sanskrit literature came into being with the making of Vedas and left a rich legacy of literary knowledge for the times to come. However, the language of the Vedas differs from the language used in poetry and drama, classical Sanskrit literature is found to be in vogue when it comes to writing poetry and dance dramas.
Sanskrit Drama:
The combination of different genres of drama and Sanskrit resulted in a unique amalgamation that gave us the literary treasure of Sanskrit dramas and Sanskrit plays. The famous dramatists of San-skrit literature were Kalidasa, Bhasa, Shudraka and Asvaghosa who gave us many famous Sanskrit plays.
Sanskrit Poetry:
Sanskrit poetry is a vast treasure of knowledge that gives us immense information about ancient thoughts and principles. Some of the best works in ancient Sanskrit literature are in the form of Sanskrit poems. Some of the most famous and respected poets have given us the treasure of poetry in Sanskrit.
Indian Epics:
India is the land of famous mythologies and folklores. Some of the greatest works of ancient classical literature are found here. The two famous works that are synonymous to epic literature of India are Ramayana and Mahabharata. These two classical epics of India are written in ancient Sanskrit and present the most common ideals of human civilization that seem to have gone down the drain in the modern times.
Sanskrit Poets:
Sanskrit-has its roots deeply embedded in our culture. It is fur-ther glorified by the famous Sanskrit writers who wrote master-pieces in classical Sanskrit thus giving the language a very presti-gious place in the cultural heritage of India. Sanskrit poets of India are an integral and inseparable part of the historical and cultural legacy of this country.
Vedas:
These four Vedas contain a priceless treasure of knowledge. This Vedic literature is aimed at not just sacred rituals, but also at attaining higher levels of understanding about survival, life and death.
The word Veda is derived from the word “Vid” which literally means, “Root”.
1. Write about the Philosophy of Jainism?
Ans: Jainism emphatically asserts that every soul is capable of attaining perfection if it willfully exerts in that direction. But the real situation is that from time eternal the soul is bound with matter and it is the aim of every person to get the soul rid of matter so that the soul can assume its true state. This spiritual emancipation requires the knowledge of the beatific condition and of the causes which stand in the way of its attainment.
To find out these causes it is necessary to understand what are the existing elements or substances of nature and mode of their interaction. Jainism believes that the whole universe can be divided into two categories, viz., Jiva, i.e., soul and Ajiva, i. e. non-soul. These two Jiva and Ajiva exhaust all that exists in the universe and Jaina philosophy is based on the nature and interaction of these two elements. It can be said in short that the living and the non-living, by coming into contact with each other, forge certain energies which bring about birth, death and various experiences of life; this process could be stopped, and the energies already forged destroyed, by a course of discipline leading to salvation.
A close analysis of this brief statement shows that it involves following seven propositions:
(a) Firstly, that there is something called the living.
(b) Secondly, that there is something called the nonliving.
(c) Thirdly, that the two (i. e. the living and nonliving) come into contact with each other.
(d) Fourthly, that the contact leads to the production of some energies.
(e) Fifthly, that the process of this contact could be stopped.
(f) Sixthly, that the existing energies could also be exhausted; and
(g) Lastly, that salvation could be achieved.
These seven propositions are called the seven tattvas or realities in Jainism.
These seven tattvas are termed as follows:
(i) Jiva (i. e. Living substance)
(ii) Ajiva (i. e. matter or non-living substance)
(iii) Asrava (i. e., the influx of Karmic matter in the soul.
(iv) Bandha (i. e, bondage of soul by Karmic matter)
(v) Samvara (i. e, the stopping of Asrava)
(vi) Nirjara (i. e, the gradual removal of Karmic matter).
(vii) Moksha (i. e, the attainment of perfect freedom or salva-tion)
It is clear that the first two of the tattvas deal with the nature and enumeration of the external substances of nature and the remaining five tattvas deal with the interaction between these two substances, viz., Jiva, i. e, spirit and Ajiva, i. e, matter.
Further, much importance has been given to these seven tattvas as every would-be aspirant for Moksha has to understand the nature of these tattvas. Again, out of these seven tattvas the substances are really two viz., soul and non-soul, and among these two, the non-soul is all that is not soul, i. c., devoid of sentience. Therefore, among these two substances, the really sentient object is the Jiva, i.e., the soul. Naturally, the living substance, viz. Jiva, assumes highest importance in the context of Ahimsa.
Jiva:
As regards the characteristics of Jiva, i.e., the soul, it is stated that there is an infinite number of souls; in fact, the whole world is literally filled with them. The souls are substances and as such they are eternal. Again, their characteristic mark is intelligence, which can never be destroyed. Further, the soul is ever all perfect, all powerful; but by ignorance it identifies itself with the matter and hence its degradation and troubles start.
Furthermore, souls are of two kinds, viz.,
(i) Samsari, i. e., mundane souls and
(ii) Siddha or Mukta, i. e. liberated souls.
Out of these, the samsari Jivas, i. e. the mundane souls, are the embodied souls of living beings in the world and are still subject to the cycle of Births and Deaths and the Siddha or Mukta Jivas are the liberated souls and as such
(i) they will not be embodied in future,
(ii) they have accomplished absolute purity,
(iii) they dwell in the state of perfection at the top of the universe,
(iv) they have no more to do with worldly affairs,
(v) they have reached Mukti or Nirvana or Nivrtti, i. e. libera-tion, and in their condition they have four enjoyments, viz., Ananta-darsana, i.e… unlimited perception, Ananta-jnana, i. e, perfect knowledge, Ananta-Virya, i.e., infinite power, and Ananta- sukha, i.e., unbounded happiness.
In addition, from the Metaphysical point of view the difference between the Samsari-Jiva, i.e., the mundane soul, and the Mukta Jiva i.e. the liberated soul, consists in the fact that the former is permeated with subtle matter known as Karma, while the latter is absolutely pure and free from any material alloy.
Moreover, the mundane or embodied souls, i.e. the Samsari Jivas, are further classified in different ways and this classification is a subject not only of theoretical but also of great practical interest to the Jainas. As their highest duty is not to injure any living beings, it becomes incumbent on them to know the various forms which life may assume.
(i) Samanska and Amanaska Jivas
(ii) The mundane souls are divided into two groups, viz., Sthavara Jivas’, i. e. those who have a mind (i.e., the faculty of distinguishing right or wrong) and ‘Amanaska Jivas’ i.e., those who have no mind.
(iii) Sthavara and Trasa Jivas
The mundane souls are also divided into two groups from an-other point of view, viz. ‘Sthavara Jivas’ are the immobile or one-sensed souls, that is, having only one sense, i.e. the sense of touch; and ‘Trasa Jivas’ are the mobiles, many- sensed souls, that is, hav-ing a body with more than one sense. Again, the mobile souls are those which being in fear have the capacity of moving away from the object of fear, and immobile souls do not have this capacity.
The Sthavara, i.e., the immobile or one-sensed souls are further divided into following five kinds:
(a) Prthvikaya, i.e., earth-bodied souls,
(b) Apkaya, i.e., water-bodied souls,
(c) Tejahkaya, i.e., fire-bodied souls,
(d) Vayukaya, i.e., air-bodied souls; and
(e) Vanaspatikaya, i.e., vegetable-bodied souls.
The Trasa, i.e., the mobile or many-sensed souls are also further divided into four classes according to the possession of two or more of the five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing:
(i) Dvi-indriya Jivas, i.e., those which have the first two senses of touch and taste, for example, worms, etc.,
(ii) Tri-indriya Jivas, i.e., those which have the first three senses of touch, taste and smell, for example, ants, etc.
(iii) Chatur-indriya Jivas, i.e., those which have first four senses of touch, taste, smell & sight, e. g. humble-bee
(iv) Pancha-indriya Jivas, i.e., those which have five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, for example, man, etc.
Thus, in this classification each class has one sense more than the preceding it.
Ajiva:
Jaina philosophy starts with a perfect division of the universe into living and non-living substances, Jiva and Ajiva.
The non-soul substances are of five kinds, viz.,
(i) Pudgala, i.e., matter,
(ii) Dharma, i.e., medium of motion,
(iii) Adharma, i.e., medium of rest,
(iv) Akasa, i.e., space, and
(v) Kala i.e., time
These six living and non-living substances are called Dravyas in Jaina Philosophy.
A Dravya has got three characteristics. First, Dravya has the quality of existence. Secondly, it has the quality of permanence through origination and destruction. Thirdly, it is the substratum of attributes and modes.
The Dravya is thus un-created and indestructible, its essential qualities remain the same and it is only its Paryaya or mode or condition, that can and does change.
Asrava:
The third principle Asrava signifies the influx of Karmic matter into the constitution of the soul. Combination of Karmic matter with Jiva is due to Yoga. Yoga is the activity of mind, speech and body. Thus Yoga is the channel of Asrava. The physical matter which is actually drawn to the soul cannot be perceived by the senses as it is very fine.
Bandha:
When the Karmic matter enters the soul, both get imperceptibly mixed with each other. Bandha or bondage is the assimilation of matter which is fit to form Karmas by the soul as it is associated with passions. The union of spirit and matter does not imply a complete annihilation of their natural properties, but only a suspen-sion of their function, in varying degree, according to the quality and quantity of the material absorbed.
Thus, the effect of the fusion of the spirit and matter is mani-fested in the form of a compound personality which partakes of the nature of both, without actually destroying either.
Samvara:
Effective states of desire and aversion, and activity of thought, speech or body are the conditions that attract Karmas, good and bad, towards the soul. When those conditions are removed, there will be no Karmas approaching the Jiva, that is complete Samvara – a sort of protective wall shutting out all the Karmas is established round the self.
Thus Samvara is the stoppage of inflow of Karmic matter into the soul. There are several ways through which the stoppage could be effected.
Nirjara:
Nirjara means the falling away of Karmic matter from the soul. The soul will be rendered free by the automatic falling out of the Karmas when they become ripe. But this is a lengthy process. The falling away may be deliberately brought through the practice of austerities.
Thus, Nirjara is of two kinds. The natural maturing of a Karma and its separation from the soul is called Savipaka Nirjara and in-ducing a Karma to leave the soul, before it gets ripened by means of ascetic practices is called Avipaka Nirjara.
Moksha:
Moksha or liberation is the freedom from all Karmic matter, owing to the non-existence of the cause of bondage and the shed-ding of all the Karmas. Thus complete freedom of the soul from Karmic matter is called Moksha.
Moksha is attained when the soul and matter are separated from each other. The separation is affected when all the Karmas have left the soul, and no more Karmic matter can be attracted towards it.
2. What were the Differences between Indus civilization & Vedic Culture?
Ans: The Indus civilization and Vedic culture constitute two great cornerstones in the history of Indian culture and civilization. When we make a comparison between the two, we notice more differences than similarities. Our sources of information of the Harappan civiliza-tiare mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources – the Vedas.
Differences: Harappans are said to have been the original inhabit-ants of India while the Aryans, the founders of Vedic culture, are believed to have come to India from Central Asia. The Harappan civili-zation was urban in nature as is evidenced by its town-planning, drain-age system, granary and so on.
The Vedic culture was rural. There is almost complete absence of towns in the Rigvedic period. At best the Rigvedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense. The Indus towns were well-planned, divided into two well- laid out parts – the citadel and lower town with elaborate gateways.
In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, while the later- Vedic economy had predominance of agriculture and cattle rearing.
The various agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people and they owed this knowledge to the non-Vedic people. For early Vedic people pastoral-ism was the more prestigious profession. In the Harappan civilization the only instance of furrowing the fields has been found from Kalibangan.
Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a ‘copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron. The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a ‘horse-like animal’ have been unearthed from Surkotada (Gujarat) and still it has not been convinc-ingly proved that the horse was employed by the Harappans.
Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, and spears) were primitive in nature. No evi-dence of armour, helmet, body armour or shield is available. The Ary-ans, on the contrary, were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged ‘science of war’. The Vedic society was primarily based on kinship whereas the Harappan culture could not be basically kin-based.
The Vedic religion differed from that of the Harappans. The Ary-ans worshiped Varuna, Indra, Aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods.
The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, Mother Goddess, animals, snakes and nature. The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan. The Harappans practised earth burials whereas the Aryans practised cremation.
The Harappan pottery called ‘black or red pottery’ was wheel made and very distinctive in nature. From all the Harappan sites fragments of this typical pottery have been collected in large numbers. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (Painted Grey Ware).
The facial features and the physical types differed considerably. The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion and compara-tively thin with short nose, thick lips and tiny eyes. The Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome with long and pointed nose, thin lips, pointed chins, broad shoulders and fair complexion.
The lifestyle was also different. The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cows and calf. They attached great importance to individual and community bathing as is witnessed by the private bath-rooms and great Bath at Mohenjodaro. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink. Meat of the animals scarified was eaten.
The dress and costumes, the hair-do’s and the cosmetics, the jewellery and the ornaments etc. of the two cultures differed. The Harappan women put on a skirt and men used a band of cloth round their loins. The Aryans used embroidered cloth along with the ones made of leather, hide or skin. Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.
Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages of India and almost all Indian Languages were deeply influenced by it, but the Indus script still remains undeciphered and we are completely in the dark about its literary developments. However, it is clear that the Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate. We do not have any word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.
3. What is the feature of Nomenclature of Indus Civilization?
Ans: There are two names that have been applied to ancient India’s first phase of urbanization – Harappan civilization or Indus civiliza-tion. The first of these is derived from an academic tradition which uses a type specimen, or site, as the basis for nomenclature in archae-ology.
Since the mounds adjacent to the modern village of Harappa were the first locality where the remains of this civilization were first iden-tified, the name Harappan fits such a system perfectly. The second name, Indus civilization is used interchangeably.
Firstly because it refers to precisely the same cultural, chrono-logical and geographic entity and secondly because it started from the river valley of the Indus River and the largest concentration of settle-ment sites are located along the course of this river sir John Marshall was the first scholar to use this term.
While both these terms can be justified in some ways, neither of them is without shortcomings. For example, the very notion of the Indus civilization in Saurashtra (Gujarata) is out of place in view of the fact that it is reasonably beyond the geographic bounds of the Indus valley, as are Haryana, Indian Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh, where the remains of Indus civilization were found. The term Harappan civilization, conjures up a notion that the civilization began at a site which best represents the ancient urban system of South Asia.
The Indus civilization belongs to the proto-historic period since it represents a phase in which people had developed a script and written records are available but the script has not been deciphered as yet despite repeated attempts.
Although some scholars are inclined to place Indus civilization in the category of chalcolithic state but majority thinks that chalcolithic groups were primarily rural farming communities with knowledge of copper, the first metal to be used by mankind. Technologically speak-ing chalcolithic stage applied to the pre-Harappans and many post-Harappans because they mostly used stone and copper objects, although they very occasionally used low-grade bronze.
On the other hand, the Harappans used bronze on a large scale and were urban in character. One might expect that, left to its own resources, the internal development in the chalcolithic period would in due course have led to urbanization. So it is agreed that the Indus civilization belonged to the Bronze Age, generally associated with city formation.
4. Short Essay on the Metal Technology of Indus Civilization.
Ans: A large number of metals were used by the Harappans for a variety of uses. Copper in its unalloyed form was the most extensively used metal by the Harappans. The main tools made of copper are ra-zors, chisels, knives, arrow-heads, spearheads, celts, hooks, saws, swords, etc. Bronze sculptures are represented by the dancing girl from Mohenjodaro and also by animal figurines of dog, bull, birds, etc.
No doubt, gold, because of its attractive native appearance, was one of the first metals to be sought after by man. Panning or washing of gold dust was probably the principal means employed in ancient times to obtain gold. There is as yet insufficient evidence in the Indian subcontinent to indicate the character and use of gold in pre-Harappan times. With the Indus civilization there is more evidence.
Objects of gold are reasonably common, though by no means prolific. Gold occurs in the form of beads, pendants, amulets, brooches, needles, and other small personal ornaments, including small hollow conical caps with interior soldered loops, doubtless, for use as fore-head ornaments, and identical with modern examples. Much of the Indus gold is of light colour indicating a high silver content; or rather it is unrefined electrum. This suggested that it originated from the quartz reefs of Karnataka, rather than from panning.
Silver makes its earliest appearance in the Indus civilization. That it was relatively more common than gold is indicated by the number of large vessels made of silver, and by the frequency of other finds. Beads and smaller ornaments apart, the forms of the utensils almost always repeat those made in copper. A silver buckle found at Harappa with soldered cross pattern of gold wire and gold-capped beads, and a boss of silver inlaid with conch-shell are among finer examples of workmanship.
The Indus cities also provide testimony that lead-of-ten found in association with silver-was imported in ingot form, and occasionally used for manufacturing objects such as vases or plumb-bobs.
Lead, arsenic, antimony and nickel were also used by the Harappan people. Arsenic was used to increase the hardness of artefacts by al-loying it with copper. Arsenic could have been used as a deoxidizer for closed castings, or may have been added to increase hardness. The Harappans also used nickel, arsenic and lead alloying.
The splendid copper and bronze vessels which are among the out-standing examples of the Harappan metal crafts were manufactured by hammering over a given shape. In the Late Harappan period an additional technique, that of lapping or joining two parts to make a composite jar, appears. There is little doubt that such special objects as the cast bronze figures of people or animals, or the little model carts were the products of specialist’s workshops in one or other of the cities.
These products of the casting of copper and bronze illustrate that the process was well understood throughout the Harappan period. Copper bun-shaped ingots are among the finds. Kilns of bricks have been discovered at a number of places and some of them were probably associated with copper-working. Actual copper minerals (e.g. chrysocolla, chalcopyrite, malachite, etc.) are rare at Harappan phase sites.
In the core areas of the greater Indus valley other metal minerals, such as haematite, antimony, cinnabar, cerussite, galena and an unidentified type of lead, are recently recovered from excavations at Harappa. Although some of these metallic ores may have been used in copper smelting and alloying processes, they may have been used for other purposes, such as for colorants, cosmetics, medicines or even poisons.
Except for the site of Shortughai, where there is evidence for gold processing, most of the indicators for metal processing (viz. fragments of ores, kilns, slag, tools and metal objects both finished and semi finished) at Harappan sites are associated with copper processing, Copper or copper alloys can be divided into four categories: (1) crude copper (derived from smelting and rich in sulphur), (2) refined cop. per. (3) arsenical bronze, and (4) tin bronze. No objects of native cop. per have been identified as yet. No confirmed iron objects or brass objects have been reported from Harappan phase sites.
5. Short Essay on Vedic Religion and Vedas?
Ans: The earliest form of worship from which the present-day Hinduism has developed is known as Vedic religion. It consisted mainly of the worship of the powers of nature namely, the storm (Maruts), fire (Agni), the dawn (Usha), the sun (Surya) and the moon (Chand).
Rain, lightning, thunder and the terrors of the heavens implied the existence of a powerful being in the sky named Indra whose activities were believed to have caused these.
Vedic worship consisted mainly of singing hymns of praise to one or other of the deities, in offering oblations of soma, which is a kind of liquor made of the soma plant, to the gods and in sacrificing animals.
Vedas have been considered the most ancient and sacred text of the Hindu community. In the Hindu religion it is believed that Vedas are not the creation of man rather by God and as such they are pious as yet. It is held that the contemporary priests and saints obtained the Vedas directly from God.
The word ‘Veda’ has evolved from the substance ‘Vid’, which meant knowledge, power, gain and thought. Accordingly, the means by which human beings obtain knowledge and become scholars is Veda. Thus, it can be said that the objective of Vedas was to provide wisdom to mankind.
In the beginning the Vedic texts were committed to memory and not written down. For this reason the Vedas have also been called Sruti, meaning what is heard.
There are four kinds of Vedas in all: the Rig Veda embodies the earliest literature of the Hindus and is more interesting than the other Vedas.
It is in the form of hymns addressed to the great Vedic deities like Indra, Varuna, Maruts etc.
The Sama Veda and Yajur Veda have little originality about them as these consist mainly of the Hymns of the Rig Veda arranged in a particular way for recitation during ritual sacrifices.
The Atharva Veda, which is of much later origin, is a curious mix-ture of sublime wisdom, witchcraft, beautiful poetry and silly charms for exorcising evil spirits.
6. Brief notes on Religious faith and belief during the Vedic Age?
Ans: Though the Vedic Age cannot be dated exactly, the majority of historians locate it between 2500 BC and 1200 BC. The Vedic Age is the synonym of the Aryan age in India. The Aryan migration into India was gradual and protracted. They fought against the non-Ary-ans, defeated them, subjugated them, and finally inter-mixed with them. Indelible has been the imprint of their cultural contributions. How-ever, the only source of our information about them is the vast and rich literature, known as the Vedas.
Veda is derived from the root-word ‘Vid’, meaning ‘to know’. Veda means knowledge in general. The four Vedas are Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva. Each Veda has parts called the Samhitas. The Samhitas have parts called the Brahmanas attached to them. The Aranyakas and Upanishads are attached to the Brahmanas. Together, all these form a virtual ocean of knowledge. But, originally, these were orally transmitted from generation to generation, and were originally not in written form.
Plain-living and high-thinking were the ideals cherished by the Vedic Aryans. The richness of their spiritual tradition has given India its extraordinary vibrancy and life. The recitation of Vedic hymns with austere serenity and singular devotion orchestrated the mystic rhythms of India’s spiritual tradition.
The Vedic Aryans worshipped the principal phenomena of nature like the Sky (father Dyaus), the Earth (mother Prithvi), the Sun, the Moon, the Dawn, the Thunder, the Wind etc. Each of these was personified. The Vedic Aryans also worshipped 33 gods and goddesses, as the Rig Veda tells us. There was no hierarchy among gods, though Varuna was the most venerated one in the early Vedic pantheon. He was the god of ‘rita’ and so the custodian of truth and morality. Later, Indra came to enjoy a more important status among the gods, and commanded the largest number of Rig Vedic hymns.
There was also Maruta or the god of storms. Vayu and Vata (wind-gods), Parjanya (rain-god) Rudra (thunder-god) were prominent gods of the atmosphere. Brihaspati, Prithivi, Soma and Agni were the popular gods of the earth. Agni (fire) was a god himself as well as a medium for invoking other divinities. The ‘Yajna’ or fire-sacrifice was primary to all acts of worship and the first offerings were always made to him. Soma was the venerated drink of the gods, an intoxicating elixir that bestowed immortality on gods and humans. Formless deities like Visvakarma (the all-creating), Prajapati (Lord of creatures), Dhatri (the establisher) and Vidhatri (the ordainer) etc also were offered worship.
These divinities were primarily benevolent in nature. Propitiated properly through the simple ceremony of yajna (fire-sacrifice), the chanting of Vedic hymns and the offering of Soma, these divinities were supposedly showering benevolence and dispelling the demons of evil Everybody could offer worship directly to the gods and god-desses. There was no class of priests; they were not necessary in the mode of direct worship.
The gods were dominant while the goddesses were sober and tolerant in disposition. Usha (Dawn), Aditi, Prithvi and Saraswati were, as such, subordinate in status, The Rig Vedic religion was Henotheism, i.e. belief that the god being worshipped is the most powerful. Thus, it can be said that the Vedic Aryans were monotheistic in their polytheism. However complex it may sound, the Vedic religion was characteristically simple. Equality, fraternity, ab-sence of distinctions based on caste and colour, and the eternal reli-gion (sanatana dharma) of humanism were the key features of the religion of the Vedic Aryans.
The period following that of the Rig Veda is known as the later Vedic age. This was when religion got caught in the cob-webs of ritu-als and caste-divisions. The Brahmins came to usurp the highest posi-tions of society and dominated, through a monopoly of religion, the other three castes, namely, Kshatriya (warriors), Vaisya (the traders) and Sudras who were the ‘menial’ class. The Aryan expansion lay at the root of it all.
New gods and goddesses like Brahma, Visnu, Krishna Vasudeva, Gandharvas, Apsaras etc. appeared during the later Vedic and Epic periods. The concept of ‘Karma’ or action and sin led to increased Brahminical influence through rituals in the name of redemption and under the plea of condonation of sin. Superstitions and sub-cultural trends grew stronger.
Yet the Vedic Aryans left a legacy on which Indian culture has thrived through the ages. Foremost among these was their positive spiritual ideas and original contributions in the field of religious faith and philosophy. Equally important has been their contributions in the field of literature. The caste-system and the ‘Varnashrama’ modes of life, the high social status of women, the patriarchal and social system of disciplined and collective responsibility and accountability, the sense of equality and fraternity, the language of Sanskrit and the institutions of pilgrimage and heritage were contributions of phenomenal signifi-cance.
All these evoked the timeless within the realms of life. It has not only shaped India’s culture through the ages, but has been at the root of a continuous expansion of the ontology of conscious phenom-спа
Short Notes:
(a) Meaning of Asceticism in Jainism.
Ans: Jainism is one of the most ancient religions based on non-violent and humanitarian approach towards all beings. It is an indig-enous religion originated and developed on Indian soil with a profound progressive attitude and judicial understanding and philosophical indispensable necessities of the time. Jinas and Tirthankaras who conquered the senses and worldly desires and attained the perfect knowledge and eternal happiness through observing the right asceti-cism for welfare of all animate.
They are the builders of the ford, which leads across the ocean of suffering. They taught moral cau-sation stating that they have a humanitarian attitude and exhaust the bad actions of the past by severe practices and asceticism. Their religion is called Jainism and its followers are called Jainism. In the early period they were called Sramanas (Ascetics) and their tradition is named as Sramanic tradition.
Asceticism is originally a Greek word, which means training. The “athlete” was one trained and one might be an “athlete” in virtue. From very early the ascetic became the spiritual athlete of Church history. Two quite different conceptions are mingled in the history of asceticism. One of these preserves the original meaning of discipline of the body for some ultimate purpose as when Will-i am James urges sacrifice to God and duty as the means of training the will (Psychology, vol.ii, p.322). The other conception distrusts the body altogether. Asceticism has then as its function, and not the training, but the destroying of the body or the negation of its importance (Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by John A. Selle, Vol. ii, p.63).
Hence Asceticism should be taken to mean the form of religious life led by those who having separated themselves entirely from the world live in solitude.”1 Another word Monasticism is used in this regard which is derived from the Greek word “alone”, solitary from which the whole family of words has been formed: monks, monastic nun, monasticism and monarchism (ERC.Vol.2, p.69). It means asceticism and monasticism go together in the religious sphere.
Primarily asceticism consists in the contradiction of natural desires under the mandate of some ideal set by the will before life. Then every system of morals enforces the discipline of the will and develops its methods of spiritual exercises. Afterwards dualistic asceticism linked with a distinct attitude towards life. In this thought material body is inherently evil and the spiritual eternal is alone good. This is the metaphysical dualism, which separates soul and body, God and world and reaches to Nirvana or Moksa.
As regards ascetic practices in Jainism, they are collectively called as Tapes, which have a systematic line of action pursued to gain the distinctive end. It is the essence of asceticism and asceti-cism is the ideal of Jainism. It has three forms: 1) Samana which means equanimity. 2) Samana which means self-control, and 3) Sramana which means strive. There is no spiritual improvement without persistent and sincere efforts in the right direction. This has been mentioned in the Pali Tripitaka and its commentaries at length.
Jain asceticism is not in fact a self-torturing religion, but it is the religion of penance rested on right faith, right knowledge and right conduct (Ratnatraya) which is the path of purification and emanci-pation from all karmas. The etymology of the word “Tapa” itself means self-mortification through right actions.
Non-violence along with chastity was its fundamental character-istic based on asceticism from the very start. Although the asceti-cism or Tapa is opposed to sexuality and fertility, but it is itself a powerful creative force, the generative power of ascetic heat. There-fore Jainism may be called a religion of asceticism (Sramanism). The Dighanikaya, Majjhimanikaya and other Texts of early Pali Tipitaka also mention its ascetic characteristic.
The word “Nigantha” (unattached one or unclothed without and free from all worldly bonds and its within) is there used exclusively for Jaina ascetics indicating their way of asceticism. It is not only associated with Tirthankara Mahavira or Nigantha Nataputta but his predecessors Parswanatha and Rsabhadeva also.
The term “Jainism” itself connotes the meaning of asceticism. It is derived from “Jina” meaning conqueror of senses, the spiritual victor, and an honorific, similar to Buddha, by which its multiple propagators are known as Jainas. They are in number the little over three million (i.e. 3.15 million 0.48% of the total population ac-cording to the Census of India of 1981). The population has not increased much during the last two decades. The Jaina organizations, however, offer different figures going into fifteen millions.
Jainas live in all parts of India and also abroad. But in fact, it was not much propa-gated outside the Greater Indian sub-continent.7. The objective of the present essay is to highlight the conspicuous feature and discerning appreciation of Jainism in general and asceticism in particular. It will also give a glimpse of its positive contribution to human life concerned with the comprehension of rich heritage of social, cultural, religious, spiritual and human values.
Its antiquity, esoteric philosophy and spirituality, ritualistic aspects in practice, literature, language and culture will manifest its contribution to human values. In fact, Jainism has been in existence with vedic religion as an independent religion since inception. It also co-existed with Buddhism and its historical part in India. Therefore, its interaction between them finds ample references to in the early literature like Rgveda, Atharvaveda, Samhitas, Upanisadas, Puranas and Pali, Prakrit and Buddhist Sanskrit, literature.
(b) Jainism: as a Religion.
Ans: 1. Jainism is a Dharma, synonymous with English word Religion. The translated term “Religion” has been derived from the latin verb “Religare” meaning to bind together or from “Religere” meaning to execute ” painstakingly” which suggest both groups iden-tity and ritual. Its combined form connotes that religion is to impose binding duties and required observances on its adherents.
On this basis, it can be defined expressing valuation or designations and certain kinds of beliefs and practices. The word Dharma in our Indian tradition is derived from the verb Dhr to bear that indicates that Dharma is a base of all entities (Dharanad dharma mityahurdharmao dharayate praja (Mahabharata, Karmaparva, 69).
2. Hundreds of definitions of Dharma and Religion have been made in different Perspectives. I need not go into them. As regards the Jain tradition, it has two broad meanings: one is generic in usage and the other, technical and specific to the use of the term. Dharma in technical sense is the basis for dynamism in life that helps in our movement or motion. It is opposed to Adharma, stillness or rest. No other system of thought in India has conceived these two terms in such a fashion as in the Jain system. It is possible that these two terms may signify the moral connotations of life with its movement and death.
3. The generic term Dharma has two levels of meaning: one is metaphysical and the other one is ethical and moral. Jain philoso-phers defined the Dharma as follows:1) that which saves the being from worldly sorrows (Sansaradukkhatah sattvan yo dharatyuttame sukhe-Ratnakatranda Sravakacara, 2; cf. Sarvarthasiddhi, 9.2, non- violence and vegetarianism have their roots in such efforts. This is the humanistic approach to the goal of life.
7. The religion in Jain Sramana cultural system is of two types: one is pertaining to individuals, and the other one is concerned with the society. Individualistic religion is meant for spiritual aggrandize-ment and pleasure of temporal and next world of all beings whereas the other one confines to the prosperity of une society or community for mundane gratification and nation as well. It is of view that the caste system depends on one’s deeds (Kammana jati) and not on birth. Maitri (friendship), Karuna (compassion), Mudita or Pramoda (sympathetic joy), and Madhyastha Bhava (impartiality) are the cul-tivation of social emotions.
1. What does Tripitaka mean?
Ans: The Tripitaka is a collection of Buddhist teachings that are the foundation of the Theravada Buddhist philosophy. It’s the earli-est grouping of Buddhist teachings. The Tripitaka is also known as the Tipitaka, from the Pali words, ti, meaning “three,” and pitaka, meaning “baskets.”
Theravada Buddhism describes the Tripitaka as buddhavacana, or the word of the Buddha, as it contains the teachings of the Bud-dha and his disciples. The content was gathered and organized at the First Buddhist Council shortly after the Buddha’s death in the fourth century B.C.E. and passed down orally until written down in the third century B.C.E.
2. Discuss the reasons for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India and their impact.
Ans: Approach:
: Discuss the conditions prevailing prior to rise of jainism and buddhism.
: Discuss the factors that led to their rise.
: Examine the impact that Jainism and Buddhism made on India.
Introduction:
: Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements during the later Vedic period.
: Both Jainism and Buddhism were founded in the 6th century BC, and they sprung out of the same roots.
Reasons for rise of Jainism and Buddhism:
Social cause: Caste system became rigid and it created inequality in the society. The Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class, and both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin.
Religious unrest: Religious life in ancient India was originally very simple. But in the Later Vedic period complex rituals and ceremonies began to dominate the practice of worship. The complex rituals and sacrifices were not acceptable to the common people.
It became expensive and elaborate. Blind faith and superstitious beliefs confused the people.
Economic cause: The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. Now, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this. Similarly, money-lending was imperative for traders, which was prohibited in Vedas. Thus, the merchant class extended the chief support to these new religions.
Moreover, the rise of agriculture raised demand for drought animals which were being sacrificed for religious ceremonies. The principle of nonviolence suited settled agrarian communities better which was brought by Jainism and Buddhism.
Brahmanic supremacy: Priests considered themselves superior and others as inferiors. They took advantage of knowing Sanskrit, and interpreted religion according to their convenience. Whereas these new religions were open for all and preached in local languages like Prakrit and Pali, which found appeal to common masses.
Impact on Indian society:
Languages and Literature: Jaina contribution to Prakrit and Kannada literature. The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
Arts and Architecture: The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya,Jaina temples at Mount Abu in Rajasthan in the domain of architec-ture are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different parts of India.
Philosophy: The concept of ahimsa was a chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.
Political progress: Sabhas and samitis find its roots here. It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
Simple Religion: Its principles were very simple. It was easily followed by the people. It was not complex like Vedic religion.
Opposition to Caste System: Due to their opposition the complexity of the caste system reduced from the society.
Conclusion: Jainism and Buddhism arose to suit the needs of a changing society, patronised by an emerging class and left an indel-ible mark on India’s culture, architecture, philosophy and way of living.
Some tenets of these religions have been adopted by hinduism in their long course of association and have become an integrated part of the society.
These religions also found their influence in neighbouring countries and helped India expand its footprint in these regions, paving way for a cultural connection to this day.
Short Notes:
(a) History of Mathematics & Astrology in Ancient India.
Ans: Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India. Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various branches of Science. In this section, we will read about the developments in Mathematics and the scholars who contributed to it.
You will be surprised to know that many theories of modern day mathematics were actually known to ancient Indians. However, since ancient Indian mathematicians were not as good in documentation and dis-semination as their counterparts in the modern western world, their contributions did not find the place they deserved. Moreover, the western world ruled over most of the world for a long time, which empowered them to claim superiority in every way, including in the field of knowledge. Let us now take a look at some of these contributions of ancient Indian mathematicians.
Baudhayana:
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by him. As you know, pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is known as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayana”s Suvla Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
Aryabhatta:
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.
In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy.
Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept. Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discov-ery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
As we have seen, the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy. Evidently, Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the field of science, too, particularly Astronomy. In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra.
Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied. In fact, the science of astronomy was highly advanced and our ancestors were proud of it. The aim behind the development of the science of astronomy was the need to have accurate calendars, a better understanding of cli-mate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation of time and casting of horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge of astronomy, particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of great importance in trade, because of the requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts during night time.
Disregarding the popular view that our planet earth is „Achala” (immovable), Aryabhatta stated his theory that earth is round and rotates on its own axis” He explained that the appearance of the sun moving from east to west is false by giving examples. One such example was: When a person travels in a boat, the trees on the shore appear to move in the opposite direction. He also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight.
He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse clarifying that the eclipse were not because of Rahu and/or Ketu or some other rakshasa (demon,). Do you realize now, why the first satellite sent into orbit by India has been named after Aryabhatta?
Brahmagupta:
In the 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahma Sputa Siddhanta through which the Arabs came to know our math-ematical system.
Bhaskaracharya:
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of the 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka. He is famous for his book Siddhanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (math-ematics of planets).
Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was redis-covered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it the inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an Englishman, James Taylor, translated Lilavati and made this great work known to the world.
Mahaviracharya:
There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain litera-ture (500 B.C-100 B.C). Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions, algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very interesting manner. Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least common Multiple (LCM) of given even numbers was also described by him. Thus, long before John Napier introduced it to the world, it was already known to Indians.
As in Mathematics, ancient Indians contributed to the knowledge in Science, too. Let us now learn about the contributions of some scientists of ancient India.
Kanad:
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, the material universe is made up of kansas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. This is, of course, as you may be knowing, what the modern atomic theory also says.
Varahamihira:
Varahamihira was another well known scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in the Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology.
He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very important information regarding termites (Deemak or insects that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet.
Another theory, which has attracted the world of sci. ence is the earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.
Another field where Varahamihira”s contribution is worth men. tioning is Jyotish or Astrology. Astrology was given a very high place in ancient India and it has continued even today.
Jyotish, which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It was presented scientifically in a systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. You have already seen that Aryabhatta devoted two out of the four sections of his work Aryabhattiyam to astronomy, which is the basis for Astrology. Astrology is the science of predict-ing the future.
Varahamihira was one of the nine gems, who were scholars, in the court of Vikramaditya. Varahamihira”s predictions were so ac-curate that king Vikramaditya gave him the title of Varaha”.
Nagarjuna:
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date, this technology is used in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
(b) Medical Science in Ancient India
(Ayurveda & Yoga).
Ans: As you have read, scientific knowledge was in a highly advanced stage in ancient India. In keeping with the times, Medical Science was also highly developed. Ayurveda is the indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India. The word Ayurveda literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. This ancient Indian system of medicine not only helps in treatment of diseases but also in finding the causes and symptoms of diseases.
It is a guide for the healthy as well as the sick. It defines health as an equilibrium in three doshas, and diseases as disturbance in these three doshas. While treating a disease with the help of herbal medi-cines, it aims at removing the cause of disease by striking at the roots. The main aim of ayurveda has been health and longevity. It is the oldest medical system on our planet. A treatise on Ayurveda, Atreya Samhita, is the oldest medical book of the world. Charak is called the father of ayurvedic medicine and Susruta the father of surgery.
Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted ayurvedic practitioners. Do you know that Ayurveda has lately become very popular in the western world? This is because of its many advantages over the modern system of medicine called All-opathy, which is of western origin.
Susruta:
Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He studied human anatomy with the help of a dead body. In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of twenty-six kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over 760 plants are described. All parts, roots, bark, juice, resin, flowers etc. were used, Cinnamon, sesame, peppers, cardamom, ginger are household remedies even today.
In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the purpose of its detailed study has also been described. The dead body of an old man or a person who died of a severe disease was generally not considered for studies. The body needed to be perfectly cleaned and then preserved in the bark of a tree. It was then kept in a cage and hidden carefully in a spot in the river. There the current of the river softened it. After seven days it was removed from the river. It was then cleaned with a brush made of grass roots, hair and bamboo. When this was done, every inner or outer part of the body could be seen clearly.
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting off your nose and/or ears was a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.
Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern surgeons while doing plastic surgery.
Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking the fetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc. Does it not sound interesting and wonderful?
Charak:
Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable book on medicine. It has the description of a large number of diseases and gives methods of identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. He was the first to talk about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and so medical science. In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics. Don”t you find it fascinating that thousands of years back, medical science was at such an advanced stage in India.
Yoga & Patanjali:
The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets into motion the force that purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as mental.
Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spiritual balance,
Yoga was passed on by word of mouth from one sage to another. The credit of systematically presenting this great science goes to Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Aum is spoken of as the symbol of God. He refers to Aum as a cosmic sound, continuously flowing through the ether, fully known only to the illuminated. Besides Yoga Sutras, Patanjali also wrote a work on medicine and worked on Panini”s grammar known as Mahabhasaya.
2. Contribution of Ancient India towards Science and Math-ematics?
Ans: India made an important contribution to science. In ancient times, religion and science were inextricably linked.
Astronomy made great strides in India because the planets began to be regarded as gods, and their movements began to be closely observed.
Their study became essential because of their connection to changes in the seasons and weather conditions which were impor-tant for agricultural activities. The science of grammar and linguis-tics arose because the ancient brahmanas stressed that every Vedic prayer and mantra should be recited with meticulous precision.
In fact, the first result of the scientific outlook of Indians was the development of Sanskrit grammar. In the fifth century BC, Panini systematized the rules governing Sanskrit and produced a grammar called Ashtadhyayi. By the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine began to develop separately. In the field of mathematics, the ancient Indians made three distinct contributions: the nota-tion system, the decimal system, and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal system is in the beginning of the fifth century AD.
The Indian notational system was adopted by the Arabs who spread it in the Western world. The Indian numerals are called Arabic in English, but the Arabs themselves called their numerals hinds, and before they were adopted in the West they had been used in India for centuries.
They are to be found in the inscriptions of Ashoka which were inscribed in the third century BC. Indians were the first to use the decimal system. Aryabhata (ad 476-500) was acquainted with it. The Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the Western world borrowed it from the Arabs when the latter came into contact with India. The zero was discovered by Indians in about the second century BC.
Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, and it was used in this sense in sums of arithmetic. In Arabia, the earliest use of zero was in ad 873. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe. Although both Indians and Creeks contributed to algebra, in Western Europe its knowledge was ac-quired not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it from India.
The brick constructions of Harappa show that in north-western India, people had a substantial knowledge of measurement and ge-ometry. Eventually the Vedic people may have benefited from this knowledge, which appears in the Sulbasutras of about the fifth cen-tury BC. In the second century BC, Apastamba produced a practical geometry for the construction of altars at which the kings could offer sacrifices.
It describes the acute angle, obtuse angle, and right angle. Aryabhata formulated the method for calculating the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of this time is Suryasiddhanta, and no comparable work is to be found in the contemporary ancient East. The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and Varahamihira. Aryabhata lived in the fifth century, and Varahamihira in the sixth. Aryabhata calculated the position of the planets in accordance with the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses.
The circumference of the earth, which he measured on the basis of speculation, is even today considered to be correct. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates. Aryabhata’s work is entitled Aryabhatiya was a landmark in the development of math-ematical and astronomical knowledge, and is a distinct contribution to trigonometry.
On the basis of it, all the shapes and sizes of plots involved in gift making and property partition could be measured and assessed for fixation of rent or tax in early medieval times. This knowledge could also be used for the various measurements needed for the erection of temples and palaces, and other engineering work.
The use of the zero and the decimal system finds a place in the Aryabhatiya, but it was not put to any significant use in India. Once it spread westward through the Arabs, it began to be used for book-keeping by Italian traders in the tenth century.
India’s loss in trade between the sixth and the tenth centuries can perhaps be linked to the neglect of the zero and decimal system. More accurate knowledge relevant to measurement and also to agro-astronomical calculations was made available by the algebra developed by Brahmagupta during the first half of the seventh century.
Varahamihira’s well-known work Brihatsamhita was written in the sixth century. He stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, Indians doubtless pursued the subject further and made use of it in their observations of the planets.
Varahamihira’s plant and animal classifications enriched agri-cultural knowledge. Although his predictions relate to numerous social matters, the instructions given by him regarding the selection of sites for building houses tie up with the founding of new villages. Similarly, Varahamihira’s observations on the seasons and the weather could have been useful in planning the agricultural calendar.
He emphasized that the calendar should be constantly updated to keep pace with the change in the seasons. Varahamihira acted as a kind of astronomer-cum-astrologer. The office of jyotish began in early medieval times, as is indicated in many land charters. In the rural areas, the priest-jyotish became an integral part of the Jajmani system. In the applied field, Indian craftsmen contributed much to the development of chemistry. Indian dyers invented lasting colours and they also discovered the blue colour. We may recall that Indian smiths were the first in the world to manufacture steel.
3. Growth of Science in Ancient India?
Ans: The following points highlight the five important sciences which made progress in ancient India.
The sciences are: 1. Astronomy 2. Mathematics 3. Medical Science 4. Chemistry 5. Physics.
1. Astronomy:
Since the Vedic religion required the performance of various sacrifices in different seasons of the year, a know-ledge of astronomy had to be cultivated for discovering proper time for the commence-ment and ending of these sacrifices.
Sometimes the sacrifices were started when the Sun reached the winter solstice and continued till it returned to the same position. These sacrifices were known as Samvatsara or yearly sacrifices. Even now the season begins and ends with the position of the solstices and the equinoxes.
The Vedic calendar was divided into five seasons, Vasantha (spring), Grisma (summer), Varsha (rainy season) Sarad (autumn) and Hemanta-sisira (winter). Sometimes Hemanta and Sisira were calculated separately. We also get references to a seventh season which is described as “single born”.
This was probably an intercalary month. The people also knew about five planets and twenty-seven nakshatras and could calculate the time of the occurrence, duration and the end of the eclipse.
Though in the Atharvaveda the eclipse has been explained in mythological terms, the Rig-Veda clearly mentions that it was the result of the occultation of the sun by the moon. The most important astronomers of the earlier period were Vriddha Garga who was a contemporary of the Pandavas, Lagdha, the author of Yajusha Jyotisha, and Parasara.
The name of Vriddha Garga occurs twice in Mahabharata. It is said that he lived at a place on the river Saraswati and attained knowledge of time and motion, planets and stars. The Rishis came from various places to learn this new science from him.
Lagdha is credited with having found the summer solstice to pass through the middle of the nakshatra Aslesha and the winter solstice through the first point of the nakshatra Dhanishta.’ The other astronomers like Parasara and Garga also made valuable con. tribution to the sciences of astro-nomy and carried traditions of the earlier scholars.
In addition to these scholars we also learn of certain other astronomers like Rishi Putra, Kapilacharya, Kasyapa, Devala etc. But we are not very certain about the exact time when they flourished and the contri-bution they made to the field of Hindu astronomy.
The most outstanding astronomer of the ancient time was Aryabhata. He is well known for his originality and valuable con-tribution to the science of astronomy. He was born in 476 A. D. He wrote Aryabhatiyam, in which he dealt with the principle of diurnal revolution of the earth on its own axis. He also mentions the motion of the sun and moon.
Aryabhata said: “The starry vault is fixed: it is the earth which, moving on its own axis, seems to cause the rising and the setting of the planets and stars”.
Similar view has also been expressed in Chandogya Upanishad which says: “The sun never sets or rises. When people think to themselves the sun is setting, it only changes about after reaching the end of the day, and makes night below and day to what is on the other side. When the people think he rises in the morning he only shifts himself about after reaching the end of the night and makes day below and night to what is on the other side. In fact he never does set at all.”
The science of astronomy continued to flourish after Aryabhata and his disciples like Latadeva and Bhaskara I continued to make valuable contributions. Latadeva earned the reputation as Sarva-siddhanta-guru because of his contributions. Bhaskara I also wrote important works of astronomy like Laghubhaskaryia and Maha-bhaskariya.
Another astronomer of ancient time was Varahamihira who is believed to have died in 587 A.D. Varahamihira was a versatile genius who made important contributions to different bran-ches of natural science. In the field of astronomy he wrote a number of works but the most important of them is Pancha Siddhantika.
In this work Varahamihira combined the teachings of Panlisa and Ronaka Vasishtha. He also made the old Surya Siddhanta up-to-date by borrowing astronomical constants from the Aryabhatta Ardharatri system.
Varahamihira possessed a catholic outlook which is reflected in his opinion that the Greeks must be revered for their knowledge of astronomy even though socially they might be outcastes (mlechchhas). The works of Varahamihira were translated into Arabic by Alberuni. Another important Hindu astronomer was Brahmagupta who was born in 598 A.D. He lived and carried on his investigations in the famous observatory at Ujjain. It may be noted that even Varaha-mihira also worked on the same observatory. The most important works of Brahmagupta include Brahma-sphuta-Siddhanta and Khan-dakhadyaka.
It is thus evident that as a result of the efforts of these astro-nomers the Hindu astronomy made commendable progress during ancient India. The importance of these scholars lies not only in the originality of their conclusion but also in the scientific methods adopted by them.
Some of the important contributions made by these scholars of astronomy were the suggestions about the lunar Zodiac with the twenty-seven constellations, discoveries about the diurnal rotation of the earth on its own axis, the scientific cause of solar and lunar eclipses, the hypothesis of epicycle for planetary move-ments, theo-ries about the annual precession of equinoxes, the relative size of the sun and the moon as compared with the earth and the determi-nation of lunar constants entering into the calculation of lunar periods and eclipses.
It may be noted that the names of the Zodiac, the cast-ing of horoscopes and use of other technical terms by astronomers like Varahamihira indicate that the Indians were familiar with Greek astronomy.
However, it is difficult to determine exactly the extent of the Greek influence on the Hindu astronomy because the Hindu as. Astronomers usually write in aphorisms and stated only their con-clusions without indicating the methods adopted for arriving at those conclusions: It is quite probable that the Indians might have assimi-lated some of the Greek ideas, improved upon them and presented them in their own way.
2. Mathematics:
Mathematics also made considerable progress during ancient times. In fact, the science of mathematics was considered to be superior to all other sciences. Emphasizing the importance of the science of mathematics (Ganita sastra) the Chandogya Upanishad says: “As are the crests on the head of peacocks, as are the gems on the hood of the snakes, so is the Ganita at the top of the sciences known as Vedangas.”
At that time ganita included astronomy, arithmetic and algebra. It did not include geometry which belonged to a different group of science known as Kalpa.
As in the case of astronomy, the knowledge of ganita was consi-dered essential for the performance of various types of sacrifices. Each sacrifice had to be made on a altar of prescribed size and shape, and even a slightest irregularity in the form and size of the altar could nullify the impact of sacrifice.
Hence greatest care was taken to prepare altars of the right size and shape. Thus we find that mathe-matics and geometry grew as a result of religious necessity. But in course of time they outgrew their original performance and began to be cultivated for their own sake.
Our knowledge of mathematics during the Vedic period is very limited. Almost all the works on the subject belonging to that period have perished. Whatever little information we can get about the progress of mathematics in the Vedic period is drawn from the secondary sources like literary works. The earliest of the great math-ematician whose works have come down to us was Aryabhata.
His work Aryabhatiyam, besides being a great work on astronomy, was also a treatise on arithmetic. In this work he discussed the problems which are now known as arithmetical and geometrical progressions and quadratic equations. He was also the first mathe-matician to attempt a general solution of the linear indetermi-nate equation by a method of continued fractions.
Brahmagupta, another celebrated astronomer also made valu-able contributions to mathematics. He wrote about factors and integers, progressions, Rule of Three, simple interest and mensura-tion of plane figures. He also formulated the rules for the negative numbers in algebra and made important contributions in quadratic and inde-terminate equations.
Another important mathematician produced by ancient India was Mahavira or Mahavir acharya. He lived during the middle of the ninth century at the court of Amoghavarsha, of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. His work, Ganita sastra sangraha, contained numerous prob-lems involving series, radicals and equations. Bhaskara’, was the last mathematician produced during ancient India.
He lived in Ujjain in the 12th century. Bhaskara also specialised in astronomy although he also worked on arithmetic, mensuration and algebra. He is credited with having anticipated Newton’s theo-ries in the discovery of the principles of Differential Calculus and its application to astronomical problems.
He also proved mathematically that infinity, however divided, remains infinite. The most celebrated work of Bhaskara was Lilavati which was translated into Persian during the Mughal rule.
The numerical system was another important contribution of ancient Indians to the field of mathematics. On the testimony of Vedas we can say that the Hindus had developed terminology of numeration as early as Vedic period and could express it with great joy. precision any number up to fourteen digits.
As regards the numeri-cal symbolism the ancient literature leaves us in complete darkness. No doubt, we can get some knowledge about the numeral expression from the various literary works, but we have not come across any definite evidence to say for certain about the numeral signs and system of the Vedic Hindus.
However, certain scholars have argued that the people had developed numerical signs even during the Vedic period because the Rig Veda refers to some cows as Ashtakarni (having eight marks on the ear). Similarly, the Yajur Veda men-tions certain gold weights called Ashtapruddhiranyam. Sometimes the people tried to express numbers using words which had some fixed numbers associated with them.
For example zero was expressed by the words, Sunya, ambara, ananta, etc., one by adi, soma, bhumi, etc., three by loka, guna, kala ratan (Jaina), etc. These chrono-grams were used to help authors to express their ideas in verses.
Another outstanding contribution of the people in ancient India was the development of the concept of place value with ten as the basis of numeration. The bigger numbers were written to the left of the smaller numbers. Vyasa-Bhashya on the Yoga sutra of Patanjali refers to this system when it says: “The same stroke is termed one in a unit’s place and ten in ten’s place and hundred in hundreds place”.
Sankaracharya also refers to this when he says: Although the stroke is the same, yet by a change of place it acquires the values one, ten, hundred, thousand, etc. La Place, a brilliant mathematical astronomer of the times of Napoleon, greatly appreciated this discovery.
He says: “It is India that gave us the ingenious method of express-ing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value, a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great case which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions; and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men of antiquity.”
Danzig, a great modern mathematician, has considered this discovery as of immense importance.
He says that “during the long period of nearly five thousand years man had been using an inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well-nigh impossible and calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the ser-vices of an expert. When viewed in this light the achievement of the unknown Hindu, who sometime in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the proportion of a world event”.
The concept of ‘zero’ was another revolutionary contribution to the science of mathematics by the people of ancient India. With-out this discovery no place value would have been possible and the Indian mathematical system could not have improved over other ancient systems.
Rules of operation of zero as stated by the ancient mathemati-cians of India may be summed up thus: “In addition cipher makes the sum equal to the one added; when cipher is subtracted (from a number) there is no change in number. In multiplication and other operations on zero the result is zero.”
Accord-ing to Halsted: “The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture, a symbol, but helpful power, is characteristic of the Hindu race from whence it sprang. It is like coining Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelli-gence and power.”
The decimal place value notation which is used at present time in almost all the civilized countries of the world was another important contribution of ancient India. In this system zero and the numerical symbols from 1 to 9 were used.
The Indian mind took great delight in abstract speculation and was specially congenial to the science of algebra. The most important contribution of the Indians in this field was the concept of abso-lutely negative quantity, general methods for the solution of quad-ratic equations of indeterminate problems of first and second degrees and rules for permutations and combinations.
Certain scholars like Bhaskara also applied algebra to the astro-nomical and geometrical problems.
Indians also made important contributions to trigonometry. Some of the theories and discoveries made by the Indians in ancient times are quite interesting and anticipated modern developments in the field. Particular mention may be made of preparation of the table of sins and the principal theories of spherical trigonometry.
The ancient Indians not only made valuable contributions to the various branches of mathematics but also exercised tremendous influence on the mathematics of other countries. For example, the Chinese adopted the decimal notation from the Buddhist.
They also adopted the Indian method of writing numbers from right to left in place of the old practice of writing figures from top to bottom. Indian mathematics also spread to Arab countries in the 8th century A.D. and the Indian numerals were adopted by them.
In fact, the Arab countries did not have any figures for numbers till the times of Khalif-Al-Mansur and they first learnt it from the Indians. During the reign of Khalif-Al-Mansur a number of Hindu scientists visited his court and translated a number of books on mathematics and astronomy into Arabic. The indebtedness of the Arabs to the Hindus for their numerals is clear from the fact that even today the Arabs use the word Hindersah for numbers which means that they took it from Hind or India.
It was through the Muslim world that the knowledge of Indian mathematics spread to Central Asia and Spain. The European countries probably learnt Indian mathematics from the Moorish university of Spain.
Stressing the indebtedness of the Western world to this field Prof. A.L. Basham says:
“Most of the great discoveries and inventions of which Europe is so proud would have been impossible without a developed system of mathematics and this in turn would have been of impossible if Europe had been shackled by the unwieldy system of Roman numerals. The unknown man who devised the new system was from the world’s point of view, after the Buddha, the most important son of India. His achievement, though easily taken for granted, was the work of an analytical mind of the first order, and he deserves much more honour than he has so far received”.
3. Medical Science:
Medical science also made much progress during ancient India. We find the earliest references about the curative art in Rig Veda which ascribes divinity to various herbs and plants. In the Atharva Veda also certain herbs and metals endowed with medicinal properties were given divine attributes and were worshipped.
We, however, learn from the Vedic literature that during the Vedic period the medical profession had become more or less hereditary, although the position of the people of this profession was comparatively quite inferior.
The Medical science was first systematized and provided with a rational basis by Charaka and Susruta. They wrote two standard books on medical science viz. Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita respectively. These books were written almost a thousand years after Atharva Veda. It is believed that Charaka wrote earlier than Susruta. Generally Charaka’s book is assigned to the pre- Buddhist era.
It deals with diagnosis, prognosis and classification of diseases. In this work he also developed humoral pathology. Comment-ing on this work Sir P.C. Ray says: “On reading the Charaka one often feels as if it embodied the deliberations of an international congress of medical experts held in Himalaya regions. The work professes to be more or less of the nature of a record of the proceed-ings of such a Congress”.
The Susruta Samhita was a more systematic and scientific work than that of Charaka. It is considered to be of more modern origin and is supposed to have been re-written by the celebrated Buddhist scientist and philosopher, Nagarjuna.
While the subject matter of Charaka Samhita is mainly medicine, Susruta deals with surgery. Indian physicians attach great importance to humoral pathology. According to Indian theory there are three kinds of humour viz. Yayu (Air), Pitta (Bile) and Kapha (Phlegm).
Scholars hold that the theory of Vayu, Pitta and Kapha is not the same as the old humoral theory of the Greek and the Roman physicians who, though they borrowed the idea from Ayurveda, probably failed to grasp the true meaning of the theory.
But the general belief is that the theory of humoral pathology was known to the Indians long before it was elaborated by Hippocratic. We find references in Rig Veda and early Buddhist literature to prove this point. However, certain scholars believe that too much had been made of the resemblance between the Greek and the Hindu theory and practice of medicine.
The analogy is more superficial than real and does not seem to bear a close examination. The Hindu system is based upon the three humors, namely, the air, the bile and the phlegm, whilst that of the Greek is founded upon four humors, namely, the blood, the bile, the water and the phlegm a cardinal point of difference.”
The art of surgery was also known to the people of ancient India and was quite advanced. We come across various references of the major operations like ambulation, laparotomy (opening the abdo-men for intestinal obstruction or other trouble), lithotomy (extraction of stone) and trophining of the skull were known to the ancient surgeons.
We get the first reference to the surgical operation in Rig Veda which says that when a young maiden named Vispala lost her leg in a conflict the Asvins, the divine doctors, provided her with an iron leg. The Susruta and Vagbhata have given an excellent description of the surgical instruments of the period which evoke our admira-tion.
The Greek and the Roman surgical instruments were merely replicas of the Hindu instruments. The various sur-gical instruments referred to include saws, lancets, needles, knives, scissors, hooks, pincers, probes, nippers, forceps, tongs, syringes, loadstones, etc.
The Indians were also the first to realise the necessity of dis-section of the human body for the education of physicians and surgeons.
Susruta writing about two thousand years ago recorded in unmistakable terms:
“Therefore whoever wishes to get a clear idea of shalya (surgery) must prepare a corpse in the proper way and see by careful tion every part of the body in order that he may have definite and doubtless knowledge”. It may be noted that in Europe the dissection of human subjects was opposed till the middle ages.
Surgery as well as medicine made great progress during the Buddhist period in India because Buddhism insisted on alleviation of the sufferings. A number of hospitals were opened for the men as well as beasts. Usually these hospitals were located in the monasteries. The inscriptions engraved on the rocks, pillars etc. also contained prescriptions for the treatment of various diseases.
Similarly the Indians knew about the circulation of blood much before it was discovered by Sir William Harvey in the 17th century.
This is borne out by the Charaka Samhita, Sutra which says: “From that great centre (the heart) emanate the vessels carrying blood into all parts of the body the element which nourishes the life of all animals and without which life would be extinct. It is that element which goes to nourish the foetus in utero and which flow-ing into its body returning to the mother’s heart.”
In the field of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, the properties of drugs and foodstuffs were investigated by the five senses and by subjective and objective phenomena manifested on the human sys-tem. It was insisted that the diagnosis should be made by the five senses supplemented by interrogation. The method of direct auscul-tation or hearing of breath sounds was known to them.
Similarly in Susruta Samhita we get references which show that the people knew about the bacterial origin and the infective nature of certain diseases such as the eruptive fevers, leprosy, small-pox, tuber-culosis, etc. But probably the most important achievement of the Hindu medicine was the introduction of metallic preparations, especially those of mercury and iron.
The great Buddhist scientist Nagarjuna who flourished in the 8th or 9th century A. D. was the first to use mercury preparation Kajjali (black Sulphide of mercury) in medicine. Hiuen Tsang who stayed in India from 629 A. D. onwards has also greatly praised the knowledge of Nagarjuna in the science of medicine.
He says: “Nagarjuna Bodhisattva was well practiced in the art of com-pounding medicine; by taking a preparation (pill or cake) he nourish-ed the years of life for many hundreds of years, so that neither the mind nor appearance decayed.”
The ancient Indians considered the medical profession as a very noble profession. Giving relief to the suffering humanity was considered to be a noble cause.
Charaka says: “Not for money nor for any earthly objects should one treat his patients. In this the physicians work excels all vocations. Those who sell treatment as a merchandise neglect the true treasure of gold in search of mere dust”.
Charaka had formulated the ethical code of Ayurveda which provided: “You should seek the happiness of all beings. Every day, standing or sitting, you should try to heal the sick with your whole heart. You should not demand too much from your patients even to maintain yourself, you must not touch another man’s wife even in thought, nor hanker after others’ wealth. You should be sober in dress, and temperate, you must not commit a sin nor be an abettor of it and you must speak words that are gentle, clean, and righ-teous,” and so on.
He further says: “If you want success in your practice, wealth and fame, and heaven after your death, you must pray every day on rising and going to bed for the welfare of all beings, especially of cows and Brahmans, and you must strive with all your soul for the health of the sick. You must not betray your patients, even at the cost of your own life… You must not get drunk, or commit evil, or have evil companions. You must be pleasant of speech.. and thoughtful, always striving to improve your knowledge”.
“When you go to the home of a patient you should direct your words, mind, intellect and senses nowhere but to your patient and his treatment…Nothing that happens in the house of the sick man must be told outside, nor must the patient’s condition be told to anyone who most do harm by that knowledge to the patient or to another”.
The people of ancient India also practiced veterinary medicine. Encouraged by the doctrine of non-violence arrangements were made for the stay of animals and proper care was taken of the sick and the aged animals. There were doctors who specialised in the disease of animals like horses and elephants and were given a very respectable position at the court.
It is clear from the above discussion that the Indian Medical Science system was quite advanced and it exercised considerable influence on the contemporary countries of the West and the East namely, Arabia, Egypt, Rome, Greece and China. It is now accepted on all hands that these countries drew most of their medical knowledge, skill and inspiration from India.
The Greeks and Romans particularly adopted the Indian system as well as the Indian names and recipes. Harun-al-Rashid, the Ca-liph of Baghdad sent Scholars to India towards the close of the 8th century A. D. to study Medicine and Pharmacology.
Certain Hindu Physi-cians were also invited to Baghdad and appointed as Superintendents of the hospitals. They were also requested to translate the important Sanskrit works of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology in Arabic.
Similarly some of the Chinese visitors also studied the Indian Medical system. The famous Chinese traveller, I-tsing, who visited India during the last quarter of the 7th century also made a study of the Indian Medical System. During the next few years also the Muslim scholars continued to visit India to study the Indian Medical Science.
4. Chemistry:
In India Chemistry developed mainly as a hand maid to medicine. The subject was known as Rasayana which is practically the equivalent of Alchemy. Amongst the greatest Chemists of ancient India mention may be made of Patanjali the well-known commentator on Panini, and Nagarjuna, the great Buddhist monk.
The former was an Alchemist of repute. He seems to have flour-ished during the second century B.C. and was considered to be an authority on Loha-sastra (science of iron). Nagarjuna was another important representative of the art of al-chemistry.
He lived near Somnath between eighth and ninth century A. D. and composed a book which contained the substance of whole lit-erature on this subject. This work is considered to be of rare importance. Nagarjuna was the first to use mercury preparation Kajjali in medicine.
He is also credited with the discovery of the process of distillation and calcination. Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller, has recorded that Nagarjuna had specialised in art of compounding medicine and, by inventing a preparation he prolonged the years of life;
The people of ancient India have been credited with discoveries and inventions of the processes of distillation, steaming and fixation. Though the mineral acids were not known to the Indians till the 16th century A. D. but they used a mixture called vid to kill all metals. The progress made by the Indians in the field of Rasayana has been greatly admired by the famous traveller Alberuni.
He records “They have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them. They call it Rasayana. It means an art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs and compounds and medi-cines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who are ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.”
The people of ancient India had good knowledge of the metals and their extractions from naturally occurring ores. Gold and silver ornaments were used during the Vedic period. The soldiers of an-cient India used coats of male and metallic helmets.
Yajurveda also makes a mention of iron, lead and tin. Chhandogya Upanishad also clearly shows that Hindus had fairly good knowledge about the formation of alloys. It says “As one binds gold by means of lavana (borax) silver by means of gold, tin by means of silver lead by means of tin, and iron by means of lead.”
It is admitted on all hands that people in ancient India made remarkable progress in the field of metallurgy. They prepared beau-tiful statues of bronze and other metals. The huge iron girders at Puri, the famous gate of Somnath and the big iron gun at Narvar testify the remarkable skill of the Indians in metallurgy.
The Indians were particularly skilled in the tempering of steel. Saracens, who were well known for the manufacture of Damascus blades, learnt the art from the Indians through Arabs. The popularity of the Indian sword is evident from the Persian expression, Jawab E Hind (Indian answer) which made a cut with the sword made of Indian steel.
But probably the most outstanding marvel of the metallurgical skill of the Indians was the huge iron pillar at Delhi which is 24 feet high and weighs 6-1/2 tonnes.
This pillar which is more than 1500 years old is still a source of great admiration. According to Fergusson: “It is almost startling to find that after an exposure to wind and rain for fourteen centuries, it is untrusted, and the capital and inscrip-tions are as clear and as sharp now as when put up fourteen cen-turies ago.”
He further comments: “It opens our eyes to an unsus-pected state of affairs to find the Hindus at that age capable of forging a bar of longer than any that have been forged even in Europe up to a very late date, and not frequently even now.”
In the field of chemical technology also the Indians made much known about the extraction of indigo tin from Indigo, bleaching, soap-making as well as gunpowder. In view of these achievements in the field of Chemistry the Indians were able to occupy a domi. nant position in the industrial sphere.
5. Physics:
Though the Hindus did not make a systematic study of the sci. ence of Physics, they knew about the various scientific con-cepts and sound hypotheses regarding metal and energy. It may be noted that at that time Physics was closely linked with religion and the. ology and therefore the followers of different religions differed re. garding the laws of Physics.
It can be said with certainty that the people of India at least during the times of Buddha analysed the universe into four elements viz., earth, air, fire and water. The orthodox Hindus and Jains added another element Akasa (ether) to it. Each of these five elements was a medium of sense impression-earth for smell, air for feeling, fire for vision, water for taste and ether for sound.
Most of the schools of philosophy during the ancient time believed in the atomic theory. According to Prof. A.L. Basham, “In-dian atomism was certainly independent of Greek influence, for an atomic theory was taught by Pakudha Katyayana, an older contem-porary of Buddha, and was therefore earlier than that of Democritus.”
It may be noted that the different schools of philosophy deve-loped independent atomic theories. The most important amongst these theories was that of Kapila, the author of Samkhya Darsana and Kanada, the founder of the Vaisheshika Darshana.
Kanada argued that there must be some smallest thing which cannot be further analysed. Without this assumption there would be an endless regress and there would be no difference of magnitude “between a mustard seed and a mountain”, a “Gnat and an elephant”.
These un-composed and invisible particles which had no magnitude were described as atoms. It was held that each atom had no specific qualities but only potentialities. These potentialities came into play only when the atom combined with others.
It was held that when the atoms combined to form matter they were of different elements and the matter acquired its property from the predominance of any particular element.
Thus a metal like wax might melt and burn because it contains the elements of water and fire. Umasvati who lived in the 1st century A.D. advocated that only atoms of opposite qualities could combine and the atoms attracted or repelled as they were heterog-enous or homogenous.
Commenting on the atomic theories of ancient times Prof. A.L. Basham says, “Indian atomic theories were not of course, based on experiments but on intuition and logic. But the atomic theories of ancient Indians are brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, though it is probably mere coincidence that they agree in part with the theories of modern physics, they are nevertheless much to the credit of the intellect and imagination of early Indian thinkers.”
The Indians in ancient times were aware that the substances possessed properties like gravity, cohesiveness, impenetrability, viscosity, fluidity, porosity, etc. They knew about the principle of gravity. They explained the penetrative diffusion of liquid through capillary motion.
The accurate methods of calculating velocity were also known to them. As a result they could measure the relative pitch of musical tones with great precision. They also anticipated the Pythagorean law of vibrations of stretched strings, viz., the number of vibrations varies inversely as the length of the string.
The people in ancient India believed that energy was indestructible and thus they anticipated the law of conservation of energy. They viewed heat and light as different forms of the same substance.
They knew the principle of refraction and chemical effects of the light rays, causes of translucency, opacity and shadows. One of the ancient scientists also suggested a scientific explanation of the phenomenon of ebullition and rarefaction in evaporation.
The people of ancient India had also discovered the principle of magnetic pull, according to which magnet possessed the power of attracting iron. In view of this, writers like Bhoja suggested that iron should not be used in the construction of ships to avoid the risk of being drawn into a magnetic field by magnetic rocks.
The Indians had also discovered the mariner’s compass long before it was discovered in Europe.. This instrument was known as matsya yantra. It consisted of an iron fish which floated in a vessel of oil and pointed towards the North.
Decline of Sciences:
Though the various sciences continued to flourish during earlier times, they started declining after the 12th century A.D. After this period the Indian intellect tended to become more imitative rather than original. This intellectual stagnation in science was due to a number of factors.
In the first place, this decline was due to change in the mental make-up of the Indian scholars who lacked humility and freedom of thought which was enjoyed by the earlier scholars.
This point has been rightly emphasised by Alberuni when he says, “They are haughty, foolish, vairi, stolid and self-conceited. According to their beliefs, there is no country on earth but theirs, no other race of men but theirs, and no created beings besides them that have any know-ledge of salience whatsoever. Their haughtiness is such that if you tell them of any science or scholar in Khurasan or Persia they think you to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they travelled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, for their ancestors were not so narrow-minded.”
Secondly, the revival of Brahmanism also contributed to some extent to neglect of sciences like medicine. The neo-Brahmins in their zeal to overthrow everything that was Buddhist, neglected the prac-tical sciences, medicine and surgery which was very popular with the Buddhists. As a result the science of medicine and surgery greatly declined between the period 1200 A.D. to 1900 A.D.
Thirdly, with the coming of the Muslims to India the free spirit of enquiry and scientific progress suffered a setback. Islam laid great emphasis on blind obedience to the spiritual leaders and free thinking was not encouraged.
Furthermore, the Muslims attacked the various Buddhist monas-teries at places like Udahtapura and Vikramshila (which were great centres of science of medicine) and killed a large number of Buddhist monks. A large number of these monks also fled away to other parts like Nepal, South India and Burma.
As a result the progress of science was greatly checked. The people could not devote themselves to the pursuit of science due to unsettled conditions and lack of sense of security.
It is well known that science can flourish only under peaceful and prosperous condi-tions. But the foreign invasions, exploitation, political conflicts, dynastic wars etc. left the country politically as well as economically unsuitable for the pursuit of scientific knowledge.
4. Contribution of Ancient India toward Art and Literature?
Ans: The ancient Indian masons and craftsmen produced wonderful works of art, starting from Harappan times.
In the historical period, the monolithic pillars erected by Ashoka are famous for their gloss and polish, which match the gloss on Northern Black Polished Ware.
It is still a mystery how the craftsmen were able to achieve this kind of polish on pillars and pottery.
The Maurya polished pillars were mounted on statues of ani-mals, especially lions. The lion capital has been adopted as the national emblem of the Republic of India.
We may also refer to the cave temples of Ajanta as well as the famous Ajanta paintings, which go back to the beginning of the Christian era.
In a way Ajanta is the birthplace of Asian art and has as many as thirty cave temples constructed between the second century BC and the seventh century ad. The paintings started in the second century AD and most of them relate to the Gupta period. Their themes were borrowed from stories about previous incarnations of the Buddha and from other ancient literature. The achievement of the Indian painters of Ajanta has been justly and greatly lauded by all art connoisseurs.
The lines and colours used at Ajanta display a proficiency that was unmatched in the world until the Renaissance in Europe. Indian art, moreover, was not limited to India but spread to Central Asia and China, at one end, and to Southeast Asia on the other. The focal point of the spread of Indian art into Afghanistan and the neighbouring parts of Central Asia was Gandhara. Elements of Indian art were fused with those of Central Asian and Hellenistic art giving rise to a new art style called the Gandhara style. The first statue of the Buddha was fashioned in this style.
Although its features are Indian, the size and the presentation of the head and the drapery show Greek influence. Similarly, the temples constructed in south India served in some ways as models for the construction of temples in Southeast Asia. We may recall the temple at Angkor Wat in Cambodia and the temple at Borobudur in Java.
In the field of education, writing was first undertaken in the mid-third millennium BC in the Harappan culture, though this script has not so far been deciphered. In historical times we find provision for higher education in the huge monastic establishment of Nalanda which attracted students not only from different parts of India but also from Tibet and China. The standards of examination were stiff. and only those who could pass the test prescribed by the dvarapandita or the ‘scholar at the gate’ could be admitted to the university. Nalanda is one of the earliest examples of a residential-cum-teach-ing institution which housed thousands of monks devoted to learning. philosophy, and meditation.
In the field of literature, the Indians produced the Rig Veda which is the earliest specimen of the Indo-Aryan language and lit. erature, and on its basis an attempt has been made to determine the nature of the Aryan culture. In Gupta times Kalidasa wrote his fine works, and his play Abhijanashakuntalam has been translated into all the important languages of the world.
Short Notes:
(a) Brahmanic System of Education.
Ans: The Vedic or Brahmanic process of education created through a process. It was intrinsically associated with the cultural and social advancement of Aryans. Out and out it was an unregu-lated private enterprise, which functioned separately from federal control. To probably the most part it was intermittent, non formal and lacked uniformity. Brahmin priests, scholars & philosophers had taken the first step in imparting information on secular and religious things.
Soon the gurukula process of training emerged, which later developed into larger centres of learning. The goals of Vedic method of training were inculcation of noble ideas, character development, character building, preservation of cultural traits and educating youths all over their obligation to do religious, economic, and social duties. Selfrespect, self-religious and self-restraint had been shown to the pupils. The major emphasis was on the purity of living and believed, disciplined interpersonal obligations and behav-ior. The ultimate aim was acquiring the expertise of gods, which was thought to be better than any other types of knowledge.
Vedic education started with Vidhyarambha; the first stage of learning. It was provided after the kid completed 5 years. The means of worship, chanting of basic mathematics and also mantras had been the curriculum of study. It was a type of socialization of kids.
The other phase of training began with initiation ceremony known as upanayana samskara. Practically it indicates’ leading the pupil to the teacher’. After upanayana ceremony the disciple must forget about the parents of his and deal with the perfect of his. This was viewed as second birth and therefore all of people who joined the upanayana stage became recognized as twice born. The age limit of upanayana varied based on castes. It was eight, eleven and twelve respectively for any Brahmins.
Vaisyas and also Kshatriyas. Upanayana was prohibited to Sudras. The ceremony is not compulsory in the beginning but was made necessary later. After upanayanam the pupil became recognized as brahmacharin. The best to upanayana was given to females too. They had been known as Brahmavadini. When the ritual was over the pupil provided fuel, cereals, and food as voluntary gifts to the instructor.
(b) Buddhist System of Education.
Ans: Buddhist method of training was intrinsically linked with the development and also spread of Buddhism. The division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana as well as the kind of competition which followed encouraged the development of Buddhist learning. Religious rivalries between Vedic and Buddhism religion & settlement of differences through discourses encouraged further advancement in Buddhist training. Monasteries and Viharas actively engaged in pursuits that are educational. Higher education was presented inside the Sanghs, which did provide the performance of recruiting monks for missionary activities.
In most aspects Buddhist education resembled the Vedic system. Vihar and monas-teries functioned the same as that of gurugulam. They imparted a process of training, where most religious content predominated secu-lar matters. Buddhist Sanghs offered a particular sort of education and they quickly developed into universities. Nalanda was one among them.
The Buddhist educational system had borrowed a lot of elements from the Vedic pattern. As like in the situation of Brahminical understanding the initiation of companies into the learning process was viewed as a crucial occasion. In the Buddhist system the initia-tion ceremony was named Prabrajya or Puja, this means making the home for education. It started at the age of 8 plus was opened to all regardless of personal standing. As part of the ceremony the pupil with shaved head approaches his master: carrying yellow robes in his hands.
After initiation, the lay pupil became recognized as Sramana, while the monk pupil was known as Sammer. The duration of the study course was twelve years. Higher education in the Buddhist Sangha was targeted at creating monks. Generally there was an intricate code of conduct to be noticed by the pupils. It provides the 10 lessons, which are: (one) nonkilling, (two) nonlying. (three) purity of daily life, (four) refraining from liquors, (five) refusing to cat after sun set, (six) not abusing others, (seven) disinterest in pleasures, (eight) refusal of presents, (nine) distaste in perfumes and luxuries and (ten) non attachment.
Monasteries along with Bihars functioned as basic academic institutions. The style of theirs of working resembled the gurugulas in ways that are many. The kind of training was based on the Sangh; the greatest centre of learning. In the starting training was available in locations around forests, in caves & in the shades of trees. Later the venue was definitely shifted to monasteries. Schools have been incorporated with Federation plus Sanghs of Sanghs forming universities.
(c) Educational Centres of Ancient India.
Ans: With the improvement of development and time of gurugulas plus monasteries specialised educational centres emerged. They gradually look the type of universities. With the expansion of religious ideas and also growth of fresh cults the amount of advanced schooling centres additionally multiplied. Around these cen-tres organised methods of training were created. They formed into univer-sities. Chief among them were Taxila, Jagaddala, Nadia and Odantapuri. In the South Kancheepuram stayed as a crucial educa-tional centre with a lot of the qualities of faculty.
Taxila:
It’s been said that the Taxila faculty was created by King Bharata and also named after his child Taksha. It was in the Gandhara provincial capital and it is currently situated near Rawalpindi. Taxila developed into a Hindu centre of learning & flourished between 7th century B.C. to 3rd century A.D. It was not a faculty within the rigid sense of the expression, but an integration of gurugulas. It’s not really a developed syllabi, no graduation and no examination.
Taxila was obviously a centre of schooling opened to pupils above the age of sixteen. The fee structure ranged from 500 to thousand panas; payable both in the beginning and at the close of education. Poor boys could pay the fee in the form of bodily work. The government even supported poor intelligent pupils by extending scholarships along with other liberal incentives. Pupil strength varied from twenty to 500. Generally there were no particular syllabi, period of the study course or even coaching hours.
All dependents upon the capability of the teacher and the mindset of his. Fee payers have been provided quality training on Vedas during day time; while the others had been left to the whims and also fracies of the guru. Kautilya is believed to have been a pupil of Taxila faculty. The Taxila Faculty was the goal of attack by foreign invaders. The last damage was created by the Huns.
Varanasi:
It was also called Kashi and Banaras. It gained popularity soon after the fall of Taxila located on the bank of River Ganges. It emerged as the centre of Aryan culture. Vedas and 64 arts were taught in Varanasi. It was not a systematic organization. Yet students from different parts of the country attended it. Bernier claims that very few students enrolled in the university.
Nalanda:
Nalantha was a crucial centre of Buddhist learning, belonging to the Mahayana school. It was a set of monasteries which evolved into faculty. Kumara Gupta Ist designed it even further with liberal support. It’s located in modern-day Baragaon, near Patna. Nalantha earned the standing of an international faculty. Pupils from around the globe flocked to it.
Chinese pilgrim Fahienwas enrolled as a pupil. The caliber of training, infrastructural facilities and also hos-tel arrangement attracted pupils from Central Asia, China, Java and Korea. It’s said that 10000 pupils attended the Nalanda faculty. Nevertheless, Altekar fixes the hardiness of the pupils as 500. Nalantha was a greater education centre, admission into that had been extremely hard.
Valabhi:
Valabhi located in Kathiawar was the capital of Maitraka kings. Caused by the achievements of Nalanda university, Stiramati and Gunamati, reputed Buddhist scholars, created the Valabhi faculty. It belonged to Hinayana, part of Buddhism and especially to the Deravata sect. The very first Vihara was built by princess Dudda in A.D. 580. New monasteries have been included and at time of Hiuen Tsang’s go to it’d a couple of 100 Sanghams. Valabhi remained as a dominant centre of learning of Buddhism. Religious education, philosophy, economics, law, book & literature had been the subjects taught at Valabhi.
The graduates of the Valabhi Faculty have been known as Snadaks, who liked preferential treatment for work in government services. For the upkeep of the faculty kings and aristocrats endowed liberal grants. The Valabhi Faculty dropped the significance of it because of the Arab conquest plus loss of patronage. Though it survived up to the 12th century A.D.
VikramasilaI:
It was in addition a Buddhist faculty, located on the bank of Ganges in North Magadha. It was created by king Dharampala of Bengal and also the drop of Nalantha promoted its growth. The Vikramasila faculty appreciated the patronage of the Pala rulers by a council of 114 eminent teachers. The central structure was named Vigyan Bhawan. As like in Nalanda, a pre admission test was done here too.
Vikramasila was viewed as the’ queen of universities’. It was administered by Gulapati, elected by monks. Religious teaching was the top concern of the faculty. Besides, it taught subjects as grammar, tantra vidya, logic, philosophy & Tibetan education. After successful completion, degree was conferred on pupils based on the merits of theirs. The convocation ceremony was named Samavartan as well as the degree certificates have been known as Brahmanpatras. In 1203 Bakhtiar Khilji destroyed the Vikramasila faculty consider-ing it to be a fort. The inhabitant monks have been slaughtered and books burned.
Odantapuri:
This Buddhist faculty was situated near Pataliputra. It was cre-ated by Goplala during the 8th century and patronised by Pala rulers. About a thousand monks lived there. It’s a huge library. Tantric education was the speciality of Odantapuri.
Kanchipuram:
It was called’ Benaras of the south’. Kanchi was the seat of Buddhist learning and/or each Vedic. It’s declared Vatsyayana worked in Kanchi. Tink Nagar, Kautilya and Mayuravarman had been the other great scholars that had the education of theirs at Kanchi. Religion, logic, nyaya & literature had been the subjects taught right here. From the second century B.C, Viharas began Buddhist educa-tion. Sanskrit and Pali were the press of instruction. Dharmapalar and Bodhidharmar were the essential scholars that served in Kanchi. In later years the Pallavas promoted Sanskrit scholars named Kadigai Pallis.
(d) Ancient Nalanda University.
Ans: Nalanda is an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India from 427 to 1197. Nalanda was established in the 5th century AD in Bihar, India. Founded in 427 in northeastern India, not far from what is today the southern border of Nepal, it survived until 1197. It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war.
The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormi-tories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university’s heyday and providing accommodations for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.
A half hour bus ride from Rajgir in Nalanda, the site of the world’s first University. Although the site was a pilgrimage destina-tion from the 1st Century A.D., it has a link with the Buddha as he often came here and two of his chief disciples, Sariputra and Moggallana, came from this area. The large stupa is known as Sariputra’s Stupa, marking the spot not only where his relics are entombed, but where he was supposedly born.
The site has a number of small monasteries where the monks lived and studied and many of them were rebuilt over the centuries. We were told that one of the cells belonged to Naropa, who was instrumental in bringing Buddhism to Tibet, along with such Nalanda luminaries as Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava. A small opening in the cell revealed a tiny room where Naropa supposedly medi-tated.
Nalanda’s main importance comes from its Buddhist roots as a center of learning. Hsuan Tsang, the famous pilgrim from China came here and studied and taught for 5 years in the 7th Century A.D. Nalanda University at that time had over 10,000 students and 3,000 teachers.
For some 700 years, between the 5th and 12th Centuries, Nalanda was the center of scholarship and Buddhist studies in the ancient world. A great fire wiped out the library of over 9 million manu-scripts and at the beginning of the 12th Century, the Muslim invader Bakhtiyar Khalji sacked the university. It was in the 1860’s that the great archeologist Alexander Cunningham identified the site as the Nalanda University and in 1915-1916 the Archeological Survey of India began excavations of the site. What has been excavated to date is only a small part of the entire site but much of the ruins are beneath existing villages and are unlikely to be revealed. The present site is well-maintained and very pleasant to visit.
Across the street is the small museum with some excellent Buddhist statues and about a kilometer away is a temple dedicated to Hsuan Tsang. Nearby are the International Centre for Buddhist Studies and the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, set up for the research of Bud-dhism.
(e) Ancient Takshashila University.
Ans: Takshashila, was an early Buddhist centre of learning. Ac-cording to available references it is dated back to at least the 5th century BC. Some scholars date Takshashila’s existence back to the 6th century BC.
Takshashila is described in some detail later in Jataka tales, around the 5th century AD. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries before Christ, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The Knowledge of Economics) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila.
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.
The ruins of Taxila contain buildings and buddhist stupas lo-cated over a large area. The main ruins of Taxila are divided into three major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period. The oldest of these is the Hathial area, which yielded surface shards similar to burnished red wares (or ‘soapy red wares’) recovered from early phases at Charsadda, and may date between the 6th century BCE and the late 2nd millennium BCE. Bhir Mound dates from the 6th century BCE. The second city of Taxila is located at Sirkap and was built by Greco-Bactrian kings in the 2nd century BCE. The third and last city of Taxila is at Sirsukh and relates to the Kushan kings.
In addition to the ruins of the city, a number of buddhist mon-asteries and stupas also belong to the Taxila area. Some of the important ruins of this category include the ruins of the stupa at Dharmarajika, the monastery at Jaulian, the monastery at Mohra Muradu in addition to a number of stupas.
Legend has it that Taksa, an ancient king who ruled a kingdom called Taksa Khanda the modern (Tashkent) founded the city of Taksasila, However Sanskrit Taksasila, appears to contain the suffix sila, “stone” with the prefix Taksa, alluding to Taksa, the son of Bharata and Mandavi, as related in the Ramayana.
In the Mahabharata, the Kuru heir Pariksit was enthroned at Taksasila. According to tradition the Mahabharata was first recited at Taksasila by Vaishampayana, a disciple of Vyasa at the behest of the seer Vyasa himself, at the sarpasatra yajna, “Snake Sacrifice ceremony” of Pariksit’s son Janamejaya.
According to one theory propounded by Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Taksasila is related to Taksaka, “carpenter” and is an alternative name for the Nagas of ancient India.
According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later, it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BCE. There is some disagreement about whether Takshashila can be considered a university. While some consider Taxila to be an early university or centre of higher education, others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in contrast to the later Nalanda University. Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jataka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century CE.
Takshashila is considered a place of religious and historical sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists. The former do so not only because, in its time, Takshashila was the seat of Vedic learning, but also because the strategist, Chanakya, who later helped consolidate the empire of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, was a senior teacher there. The institution is very significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahayana sect of Buddhism took shape there.
Some scholars date Takshashila’s existence back to the 6th cen-tury BCE. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century CE.
Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The Knowledge of Economics) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila.
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.
1. Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism?
Ans: Reaction against Ritualism: Rituals had become an important part of religious ceremonies and festivals. They had also become very expensive. The priestly class did not realize the sufferings of the common people. As a result, people were attracted to the simple faiths of Buddhism and Jainism.
Corruption in Religion:
The priestly class forced the people to perform yajnas, sacrifices, and household rituals beyond their means. The Kshatriyas also protested the domination of the priestly class over society. Jainism and Buddhism attracted people because of their simple doctrines and simple religious practices.
Rigid Caste System:
The Aryan society was divided into four castes. While Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupied the top position in society, Shudras were considered outcasts. Mobility within the caste system was not allowed. Many people considered the caste system oppressive. They were fascinated by Jainism and Buddhism which totally renounced the caste system and believed in the equality of all human beings.
Difficulty in Understanding Sanskrit:
Most of the Aryan literature was composed in Sanskrit. Priests chanted mantras in Sanskrit and gave discourses in it which was extremely difficult for the common people to understand. Because Mahavira and Buddha spread their teachings in the local Prakrit language, people were easily able to understand and emulate their teachings.
Political Patronage:
In the sixth century BC, Magadha had emerged as a powerful kingdom, whose rulers Bimbisara and Ajatashatru were tolerant of other religions. They not only condemned social evils which existed in society but also provided patronage to Jainism and Buddhism which later spread far and wide.
Agricultural Economy:
Many farmers embraced Buddhism and Jainism as the killing or sacrifice of animals was against the interests of the farming community. Animals were used while plowing the land. They wanted a religion that could protect animals. Both Buddhism and Jainism preached against violence and animal sacrifice.
2. Impact of Buddhism.
Ans: (1) The doctrine of ahimsa or non-violence impacted the people and society deeply. Stress was given to animal protection.
(2) Buddhism challenged Hindu practices such as yajnas, sacri-fices, and rituals. It outrightly rejected these practices and the caste system.
(3) Buddhists influenced emperors such as Ashoka and Chandragupta who later became non-violent. Thus, it affected In-dian politics.
(4) As Buddhism spread to many parts of the world, such as China, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, close cultural contacts emerged between these countries and India.
(5) Buddhism contributed immensely to language and literature. Many Buddhist texts were written during the period. Tripitakas-Vinaypitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhammapitaka were composed. The Vinaypitaka lays down rules for the Buddhist monks living in the sanghas. Sutta Pitaka contains various teachings of Lord Buddha and Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with Buddhist philosophy. The Jataka tales tell us about the life of Buddha.
(6) Stupas, chaityas, viharas, and rock-cut cave temples were constructed by the Buddhists. The stupas were the hemispherical dome-like structures that contained the relics of Buddha. The Stupas at Sanchi, Amravati, and Bharhut have survived till today.
(7) Chaityas were rectangular halls with semi-circular roofs sup-ported by a number of columns.
3. Decline of Buddhism.
Ans: (1) One of the reasons for the decline in Buddhism was the spill of the religion into the two major sects of Mahayana and Hinayana.
(2) There was the revival of Hinduism during the Gupta Period. Buddhism no longer remained a state religion. The Rajputs of Rajasthan were warlike people and could not follow the policy of ahimsa. Thus, the lack of royal patronage brought an end to Bud-dhism.
(3) Gradually, corruption crept into the sanghas. Because Bud-dhism was patronized by the rulers, there was an influx of money into the sanghas. The monks and the nuns began to live a luxurious life which resulted in the decay of spirituality among its members
(4) From the 8th century AD onwards, there were Turkish inva-sions in the country which dealt a great blow to Buddhism. Many monasteries were destroyed and plundered. Buddhist monks were killed in large numbers.
(5) The invaders also destroyed the universities of Nalanda and Taxila. These universities were razed to the ground, and Buddhists books and documents in their libraries were burnt. Many Buddhists monks flew to neighboring countries such as Nepal and Tibet.
(6) All the above reasons led to the decline in Buddhism in India.
4. Impact of Jainism.
Ans: (a) Jains did not build any political empire of their own.
(b) It encouraged equality among the people as the Jains are rejected the caste system and rituals.
(c) Important contributions were made in literature by the Jain monks. Jain literature included 12 upangas, 10 prakiranas, sutras, and kamasutras. Purvas contained the teachings of Mahavira. These texts are also important sources of the period from the 6th to 4th century BC.
(d) Many monasteries and temples were constructed by the Jains. They had constructed many dharamshalas, homes for orphans, and supported charitable organizations. The structures of the Bahubali at Shravanabelagola, Dilwara temples at Mt Abu, and Jain Tower at Chittor are some fine specimens of Jain architecture.
5. Decline of Jainism.
Ans: Jainism declined because of the following reasons:
(a) Some principles of Jainism were extremely difficult to follow. The theory on non-violence extended even to the insects and germs which was not possible for every person to follow. Similarly, the theory of ahimsa extended even to the wearing of clothes.
(b) Jainism did not spread to foreign countries.
(c) Later, even in India, because of the patronage given to Buddhism by Ashoka, Harsha, and Kanishka, the spread of Jainism was restricted.
(d) The revival of Hinduism in the Gupta Period led to a further decline in Jainism, and it was restricted to only a few parts of the country.
6. Doctrines of Jainism.
Ans: Triratnas Mahavira preached that salvation can be obtained by following triratnas or three jewels. These are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.
Karma:
Jainism believed in good karma and the belief that one should be responsible for his own karma.
Equality:
Mahavira preached equality and universal brotherhood. He stressed that all men and women are equal irrespective of their caste or creed. To him, compassion should be shown to even the smallest living creature.
Eternal Soul:
He believed in the immortality of the soul.
Salvation:
The Jains believe in salvation, i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
Penance:
Penance is considered a virtue in Jainism. It means to live a hard life and to die of starvation.
(i) Because Jainism had royal patronage, it spread around the regions of Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa and in other parts of the country.
(ii) Many monasteries were founded by Lord Mahavira, and these were headed by the learned sages.
(iii) In western India, Jainism was patronised by business communities. Jainism was promoted by the Rashtrakutas and Chalukya kings in the South.
7. With reference to the sources of information about Jainism and Buddhism, state the significance of the following:
(a) Angas.
Ans: The Angas are regarded as the most important part of Jain doctrines. They are the compilation of whatever Lord Mahavira taught after gaining omniscience. The Angas were compiled in Twelve parts and are collectively known as Dwadashangi.
The two well known and most important Angas are the Acharanga Sutra that deals with the code of conduct for Jain monks and the Vyakhya Prajnapti or Bhagavati Sutra that gives comprehensive description of Jain doctrines. The Angas discuss religious rites, stages of a householder’s life, the vows of chastity, rules of conduct and all the philosophies of Jainism.
Based on these angas, the seers also compiled 12 auxiliary works that came to be known as Upangas. The Angas and Upangas provide detailed knowledge about Jainism.
(b) Tripitikas.
Ans: The Tripitikas are considered as the most important literary works of Buddhists.
The three tripitikas are following:
The Vinaya Pitaka It deals with rules and regulations for monks and nuns. It gives an account of life and teachings of Buddha as well as aspects of ancient history, customs and arts of the period.
The Sutta Pitaka It comprises the discourses of Buddha and some of his disciples such as Sariputta, Ananda and others. The Dhammapada (way of truth) is an important component of this Pitaka.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka It describes Buddhist philosophy, working of the human mind and state of matter.
Besides being the most reliable source of information about Buddhism, the Tripitakas also provide a glimpse of the social, economic and political life of people of that period.
(c) Jatakas.
Ans: Jatakas refer to tales which describe the previous births of Buddha in animal and human forms. According to Jatakas the future Buddha may appear as a king, an outcast, a God, an elephant; but in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby high-lights. The Jatakas provide very little biographical material about Gautama Buddha’s own life but throw a significant light on the political, economical and social conditions of people from the fifth to the second century BC. They also reflect Buddhist morals, ethics and principles.
8. With reference to Jainism and Buddhism, answer the following questions:
(a) Give briefly the background of socio-economic conditions in 6th century BC.
Ans: In 6th century BC, with expansion of Aryan settlements to the east, there were rapid changes in the socio-economic conditions. Society at some places had traits of Tribal political organisation while at other places kingdoms were on the rise. Materialism and spiritualism both existed side by side. People started to lead a settled life due to surplus production, expanding trade and market. There were wars among tribes for territory expansion.
The expansion of territory created large kingdoms called Janapadas. A number of Janapadas joined together to form bigger and powerful independent kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. During this period orthodox reli-gious beliefs and practices were challenged and even rejected by the new sects like Jainism and Buddhism.
(b) State any three causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.
Ans: The three causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism were:
Reaction against Ritualism Religious ceremonies had become very expensive and were beyond the means of ordinary people. This gave rise to faiths that were simple and inexpensive.
Corruption in Religion The Priests used to extract money from people in the name of yajnas, rites and rituals. Kshatriya rulers protested against such practices. Both Jainism and Buddhism were founded by Kshatriya princes.
Rigid Caste System:
The caste system had become so rigid that it was not allowing any social mobility. Interchange of caste was impossible. Jainism and Buddhism gave a simple and liberal society to the people of that period.
(c) What caused the division of Jainism into two sects?
Ans: The division of Jainism into two sects was the result of differences between Bhadrabahu and Sthulabhadra. Bhadrabahu took Jainism to Karnataka and Sthulbhadra was based in Magadha. There was clash of ideas between the two and subsequently Jainism divided into Svetambaras and Digambaras led by Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu respectively.
Shvetambharas wore white clothes and covered their faces with small white cloth to avoid killing the tiniest of insects or germs that might enter the nose while breathing while Digambaras did not believe in covering their bodies. According to them, living without clothes signified detachment from worldly pleasures and it avoided killing of life forms.
9. With reference to Jainism answer the following questions:
(a) Who was Mahavira? Why was he called Jina?
Ans: Mahavira was the twenty-fourth and last of the tirthankaras. He is considered as the founder of Jainism because he made Jainism popular and systematic.
Mahavira was called Jina because after obtaining the supreme knowledge, he subdued his desires and became the conqueror. The term jina was used for those who have conquered their desires.
(b) State the five vows which a Jain householder has to take.
Ans: The five vows which a Jain householder has to take are:
(i) Ahimsa: non violence.
(ii) Acharya or Asteya: not stealing.
(iii) Satya: not telling a lie.
(iv) Aparigraha: not possessing property.
(v) Brahmacharya: practising chastity.
(c) State the Jains view on Karma and salvation.
Ans: Jains view on Karma and salvation are:
Karma The Jains believed that one should be responsible for one’s own Karma or actions and good deeds alone liberate a man from the cycle of life and death.
Salvation Jains believed in salvation or Moksha. According to them it was necessary to practice the Triratnas of right faith, right knowledge and right action to attain salvation.
10. With reference to Buddhism, answer the following questions:
(a) Who was Gautama Buddha? How did he achieve enlightenment?
Ans: Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He was a Kshatriya prince who left his home to find a solution for pain and sufferings of men.
After leaving home, Gautama studied under renowned teachers of Rajgriha and then went to Gaya. He practised severe penance and led a life of extreme austerity and at the age of thirty five he at-tained enlightenment.
(b) What is known as ‘Dharamachakrapravartana’?
Ans: After enlightenment, Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath near Varanasi in presence of five ascetics. This event in the history of Buddhism is known as ‘Dharamachakrapravartana’ meaning the turning of the wheel of sacred law.
(c) How did Buddha have a large following?
Ans: Buddha gave importance to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on births. Buddha insisted on feeling compassion for the young and weak. He preached the universal broth-erhood of mankind. He wanted people to live in peace, setting aside all their differences. He gave people a simple and inexpensive way to salvation. These are a few ways by which Lord Buddha got a large following.
11. With reference to Buddhism, answer the following questions:
(a) What is the eightfold path?
Ans: The way to Nirvana, in Buddhism, or the path that leads to removal of suffering, is known as the Eightfold path. It is also known as Ashtangika Marg or the Middle Path.
The Eightfold Path includes:
(i) Right action violence. To remain away from theft, luxuries and
(ii) Right thought worldly evils. To remain away from empty rituals and
(iii) Right belief To give up desire.
(iv) Right living Not to have dishonest dealing with others.
(v) Right speech to others. Speak the truth and do not think ill of
(vi) Right effort welfare of others. Work for deliverance from sins and for the
(vii) Right recollection: Think about pious things.
(Viii) Right meditation concentrates on only what is right.
(b) What was the impact of Buddhism on the socio-religious life of the people?
Ans: Buddhism led to improvement in the social and religious life of people. The Hindus started a reform movement within hinduism. The costly yajnas and sacrifice and rigidity of the caste system were done with. Buddhism fostered intellectual tradition and exposed the weakness in our society. The weaker section of the society who had been subjected to many atrocities got an opportunity to have their say in matters of political and social life.
(c) What role did Sangha play in the spread of Buddhism?
Ans: Sangha played an important role in the spread of Buddhism as it was established to spread Buddhism and its teachings. Members of Sangha had to take an oath before joining it. Sangha became very powerful and helped to spread Buddhism far and wide. The members had to follow the ten commandments or Paramita to lead a disciplined life. The Bhikshus and Bhikshunis had to roam around for eight months in a year spreading Buddhism. Many Viharas were made for them to sleep and take rest. In the Viharas, the members led a life of chastity, austerity, devotion and purity.
12. Why is Ashoka called ‘the great’?
Ans: Ashoka was the only king in the history of the world who stopped war after victory. Throughout his life he worked for the good of the people. He treated all religions alike. He looked after his subjects as a father cares for his children. Every individual was the most important person of the state. He treated everybody alike and gave money and help to all religions regardless of their beliefs. He discarded the caste system.
His faith in universal brotherhood of man-kind uplifted him and he became a god on earth. Boundaries of any country were not his limit. He adopted Buddhism and sent preachers to preach it to many countries of the world like Sri Lanka, China, Afghanistan and Nepal. He held a vast empire in those ancient times above everything. There was no rebellion against him in spite of his policy of peace and non-violence. He was the first ruler who gave the world the concept of a welfare state and religious tolerance. That is why Ashoka holds an important position in the history of the world and is called ‘the great’.
13. Notes on the Religious Beliefs and Faith of the Aryans in the Early Vedic Age?
Ans: The heart of Indian culture was the spiritual life of the Vedic Aryans. Every nook and corner reverberated with the echoes to Vedic chants. The Vedic Aryans worshipped the various manifestations of nature. They appeased the venerated gods and goddesses through the rites of ‘Vajna’ and chanting of ‘mantras’.
Neither temple nor deity was to be found in those days. Nature was the befall and. end-all of their existence. The Vedic hymns were composed to sing the glory of nature.
The Rig-Veda mentions that 33 gods and goddesses were wor-shipped by the Aryans. These divinities were placed under three categories, namely, divinities in heaven, in the atmosphere and on the earth. Each category had eleven divinities.
Prominent among the divinities of heaven were Indra, Varuna and the Sun. The wind god Maruta and Prajanya were prominent divinities of the atmosphere. Among the divinities of the earth, the earth (prithvi), Fire (Agni), Brihaspati and some were quite popular.
Divinities of the early Vedic Age:
Indra was the most powerful god of the early Vedic Age. He was also known as Purandara and the destroyer of forts. He used to annihi-late the ‘Rakshasas’ by deploying his ‘Vajra’ weapon. He, too, was the god of rain. For this he was venerated by the Vedic sages for supply of water.
Varuna was the god of truth and wind. No sinning soul can escape from his clutches. Surya (sun) was the destroyer of darkness. He em-bodied light, life, wealth and energy and so was worshipped for these. The Rig-Veda describes him as the embodiment of all energy.
Usha was the goddess of dawn. The Rig-Veda sings the praise of her mystic charm. Visnu was also venerated as the god of three worlds. Maruta was the god of storms. He was venerated as the god of lighten-ing. Soma was the wine god. Yama was venerated in those days as a god whose task was to bless the people to lead a happy life.
Prithvi (earth) was venerated as the goddess of grain and of pro-creation. Conspicuously venerated in the day was Agni (Fire). Every family had a heart for invoking Him. Fire-god acted as the coordinator among all divinities. The offerings into fire were sent by him to various gods and goddesses. So the Vedas describe him as Haryana. These divinities apart, others like Pajamas, Savitri, Saraswati and Brihaspati were also venerated in those times.
Mode of Worship:
The mode of worship of those times was simple and never pompous. They chanted the hymns composed by them to appease the various divinities. The institution of fire-ceremony or Yajna was another mode to appease the gods and goddesses. They offered milk, ghee, grains, wine (somarasa), meat and fruits etc. as offerings. They believed that performing the fire-sacrifice (Yajna) would be beneficial for the entire mankind. They normally worshipped the Gods and goddesses in expectation of favors through water, cattle male-progeny. Every Aryan family was a centre of worship.
All members of a family would take a joint part in the offering of prayers and performing of fire-sacrifice. This simple mode of wor-ship, with a composition and collective undertone, was a characteristic feature of the Aryan lifestyle in early Vedic age.
Monotheism:
The Rig Vedic age saw the prevalence of monotheism. In spite of worshipping various divinities, the Aryans believed that all the* divinities are but manifestations of a single absolute truth or nature. They had realized that the various divinities they worshipped were nothing but integral parts of one Absolute Truth.
Religious Importance:
The uniqueness of religion in the early Vedic Age was quite impressive. An analysis of their religious tradition reveals that they wor-shipped the various manifestations of nature. The gods and goddesses were all equated on an equal footing.
There was no distinction among the divinities of the three categories of heaven, atmosphere and the earth. There was yet to be the emergence of the priestly class in the society. In other words, there was no exclusive class for performance of worship and religious rites.
Every family performed these religious rites, including the Yajna, all by itself. The gods outnumbered the goddesses. No shrine or temple was constructed for worship. Image worship was unknown in those days. They worshipped shapeless and invisible divinities. All these were the characteristic features of the Vedic religion.
Other Religious beliefs:
Apart from worship and Yajan, the Aryans also believed in life after death. Actions determined the destiny of man. Good actions en-titled one to a heavenly abode whereas evil actions inevitably led to hell. They burnt their dead and consigned the ashes to water, with the belief that the departed soul would thereby rest in peace.
The simplicity of faith was characteristic of the early Vedic religion. The Aryans invoked and worshipped the various forms of nature through hymns and the rites of Yajna. They, thereby, set a new trend which, in course of time, formed the basis of eternal Hindu religion. Their religion spoke of an egalitarianism not only among gods and goddesses but also among men and women of the society-Equality of the sexes in religious worship was a beacon feature of their religion as well.
14. Throw light on the socio-religious life of the people in Early Vedic age?
Ans: The Vedic Age looms large in the annals of mankind because of its glorious culture.
And the socio-political organisation economic life and the religion of the Vedic Aryans bear testimony to their glorious culture Since all about it are printed in glowing colours on the Rig vedic, the period connected with its compilation is known as the Vedic Age and the culture is known as Rigvedic culture. This is also known as the Early Vedic Age.
(1) Social Life:
The patriarchal family was the basis of the social and political organisation of the Rigvedic Aryans.
The father or the Kulapati had absolute control over the family.
He performed the family sacrifices and decided all family disputes. As the Guardian of the family he was known as Grihapati. The relationship between the members of the family was based on love and affection.
Women enjoyed an honoured position during the Rigvedic period.
As the mistress of the house the woman took part in all religious ceremonies. The woman also played an important role in the management of domestic affairs. The education of the woman was also not neglected.
The Rigvedic Aryans give due importance to female education. The women were free to take part in various kinds of intellectual discussions. There were learned women like Viswavara, Lopamudra, Apala and Ghosa.
The practice of child marriage was not prevalent in the Rigvedic society. The girls used to spend their childhood in the house of their parents.
They enjoyed certain amount of freedom in choosing their hus-bands. Marriage was considered by the Rigvedic Aryans as a sacred tie. The seclusion of women was not prevalent in the Rig Vedic society.
Dress and Ornaments:
The Rigvedic Aryans used clothes made of both cotton and wool. Their dress included three parts. The lower garment was called Vasa and the upper garment was known as Adhivasa.
The under garment was called Nivi. Both men and women used ornaments. The Rigveda makes references to the ornaments like earrings, necklace, armlets and anklets. The people regularly oiled and combed their hair.
Food:
The food of the Aryans was quite simple. They are milk and its products; wheat, barley, rice, fruits and vegetables. They also used to take the meat of goats and sheeps. They used to take an intoxicating drink called “Soma” on ceremonial occasions. They also made use of Sura, a popular drink.
Amusements:
The favourite pastime of the people were chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, gambling, dancing and music. They had great liking for music and dancing. Women Used to sing and dance to the accom-paniment of musical instruments. They played with flute and violin.
The Aryans were, prominently, a rural people. Their main occupa-tion were cultivation and cattle rearing. However agriculture was their most important occupation.
The cultivated lands were called Kshetra. The main agricultural products were Dhana and Yava. The Aryans cultivated lands with a plough which was drawn by bullocks. They considered cows and bul-locks as their valuable possessions. The other domesticated animals of the Rigvedic Aryans were goat, sheep and horse.
The Early Aryans were quite skillful in the art of weaving both cotton and woolen clothes. The wood worker was both the carpenter and chariot builder.
The potter used to make different kinds of household articles and the metal workers used to make various kinds of tools and equipment The Rigvedic Aryans carried extensively in land trade.
The system of barter was prevalent in the sphere of trade and commerce. The merchants used to take their goods in carts drawn by ej. ther bullocks or horses. The chief unit of value in the exchange of commodities was the cow.
(2) Religious Life:
Like several aspects of their daily life, the religion of the Rigivedic Aryans was very simple. They worshipped the various aspects and forces of nature. They realised the fact that human welfare depended on the power of nature.
The Arvans considered the different forces of nature as the mani-festation of the Supreme Creator, who created the universe. They worshipped Prithvi or mother earth. Indra or the God of rain and thunder. Vayu or the God of wind. Agni, the God of fire. Usha or the Goddess of Dawn.
Surya or the Sun God and Varuna or the Sky God Thus all the Gods of the Rigvedic age represented various forces of nature. At the same time they believed in the existence of one supreme power as the creator of the universe. There is no sign of image worship during the Rigvedic period.
The Aryans worshipped their Gods with humble offerings of milk, grain and ghee. The main intention behind the worship was to get earthly happiness and material prosperity. The Rigveda refers to the beautiful hymns and prayers in praise of these Gods. Thus the reli-gious belief of the Aryans was quite simple.
15. What was the condition of women in the Early Vedic Age?
Ans: If the Vedic period is divided into two halves then it may be said that the condition of women deteriorated in the second half, that is, late! Vedic period than what it had been during the Early Vedic period.
In the Early Vedic (or Rig-Vedic) period the womenfolk had a high status in the society. Women were highly respected in the family as well. A married woman used to perform religious ceremonies as a partner of her husband.
Despite the prominence of men in the family women were considered as the masters of the household. Unmarried women could pursue their study staying in the house of their parents In Later Vedic period, how-ever, this position of women changed for the worse.
The family tended to be more patriarchal. In contemporary books women have been depicted as one of the evils In the Later Vedic pe-riod women were not allowed to participate in the tribal assemblies.
1. What do you know about the Vedic literature? What was the social condition of the Rig-Vedic Aryans?
Ans: (a) Vedic Literature: The Vedic literature is a vast collection of books which include four Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Each of these was divided into Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva.
Besides, Vedangas, Sutras, etc. are also regarded as an integral part of the Vedic literature. Even today the Hindus believe that the Vedic literature has been derived from divine sources.
The various Rishis or Sages received the contents of the Vedas directly from God. That is why the Vedas are also known as Sruti or Revelation.
(b) Social Condition: The foundation of the social structure in the early Vedic Age was the family. The members of a family lived in the same house.
The oldest living member was the head of the family and was called Karta or Kulapa. He was responsible for maintaining discipline in the family. Honesty, religiosity and respect to elderly persons were some of the main features of the Rig-Vedic Aryan society.
Women were held in honor and respect. Though mainly concerned with domestic duties the women also participated in religious ceremonies.
The womenfolk of the early Vedic age enjoyed much freedom and were educated and trained.
There were learned ladies like Lopamudra, Visvavara and Ghoshal, who even composed hymns and rose to the rank of Rishis. Widow-remarriage was very much in vogue.
16. Brief notes on the Vedic Literature of India?
Ans: The wisdom and knowledge of the Aryans is contained in their sacred literature, collectively known as the Vedic literature.
Early Vedic Literature:
1. The Vedas are the oldest and the most sacred books of the Aryans, and are four in number: the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.
2. The Brahmanas are the prose texts containing observations on the various sacrificial rites and ceremonies.
3. The Aranyakas, also known as the ‘Forest Books’, are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and deal with mysticism and philosophy
4. The Upanishads are the main source of Indian philosophy and have found an important place in the history of world literature, having been translated into various foreign languages like English, French, German and Persian. They are about 300 in number, the more prominent ones being Isa, Kena, Katha, Mundaka and Brihadranyaka
Later Vedic Literature:
1. The Sutras: They are a collection of the various new customs developed with the passage of time and are divided into three classes. Srauta-Sutras, Griha-Sutras and Dharma-Sutras.
2. Vedangas and Upavedas: Vedangas are a part of Vedic texts and deal with religious practices, pronunciation, grammar, etymology (science of words), metro and astronomy. The Upavedas deal with subjects such as medicine, music, art and architecture and war.
The important Upavedas are Ayurveda, Gandharvaveda, Dhanurveda and Shilpa Veda.
3. Six Shastras: These are the six well-known schools of Hindu philosophy, known as Darshanas or Shastras. In these, the ancient sages have tried to give answers to certain difficult philosophical questions concerning God, soul, birth and death. These are Sankhya Shastra by Kapila, Yoga Shastra of Patanjali, Nyaya Shastra of Gautama Vaisheshik Shastra of Kanad, Puna Mimansa of Jamini and Uttar Mimansa of Vyasa.
4. The Puranas: They are the ancient texts of Hindus and are 18 in number.
5. The Epics: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two great epics of Hinduism, which throw an important light on the social, religious, economic and political life of the Vedic Age Aryans.
6. Dharma Shastras: These are a very important source of information about the laws and judicial procedures of the Aryans. Manu Smriti is the most important of the Dharma Shastras.
17. What were the Similarities between Indus civilization & Vedic Culture?
Ans: As regards the similarities between the two cultures/civili-zations, many of the issues have already been discussed in the previous chapter under the heading “The Survival and Continuity of the Indus civilization”. In spite of numerous differences between these two, many of their religious features were absorbed in the later Hinduism.
Both of them were quite rich in material aspects. The Harappan mathematics must have helped ‘Vedic mathematics’, known to us from the Suvla Sutras; which form part of the Kalpa Sutras and deal with the construction of sacrificial altars used in Vedic ritual.
Both Harappan and Vedic civilizations made great contributions in the field of metallurgy. Similarly use of baked bricks, pottery, wheeled carts (which the Aryans developed as chariots), great regard for personal hygiene etc. were common to both civilizations. Lastly, the Indus civilization and the Vedic culture constitute the two earliest and greatest landmark frontiers in the evolution of Indian culture and civilization.
18. With reference to the economy during the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
(a) What was the main occupation of the people and the activities associated with it?
Ans: Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The main crop was Rice while other crops included Cotton, Ragi, Sug-arcane, Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom, Turmeric, Cinnamon, different varieties of fruits, etc. Construction of embankments and canals for irrigation was undertaken by the state. Rural activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane, the making of sugar from the cane, and the harvesting and drying of grain are described in the Sangam poems in detail.
(b) Explain the organisation of internal trade.
Ans: Markets called Angadi were established in bigger towns. Internal trade was carried by caravans of Merchants with carts and pack-animals which carried their merchandise from place to place. Most of the trade was carried on by barter.
Paddy constituted the most commonly accepted medium of exchange. Salt was sold for paddy. Paddy was sold by mentioning its price in terms of salt. Honey and roots were exchanged for fish oil. There were also hawk-ers who carried goods to the houses of the people.
(c) Explain the extent and significance of external trade.
Ans: During the Sangam Age there was extensive trade with foreign countries. According to the Sangam literature the Tamil land had certain commodities which were in great demand in foreign markets. These included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. The main imports included horse, gold and glass.
The port cities were the center of foreign trade. Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera were the most important ports. The Gold and Silver coins from the Roman empire found in the interior of the Tamil land indicate the extent of the trade.
The Periplus of the Red Sea that describes navigation and trade of the Roman empire gives information on trade between India and the Roman empire. It also mentions Uraiyur where all the Pearls from the coast were sent and exported. Naura, Tyndis and Muziris were leading ports on the west coast.
19. Write a note about the Sungas.
Ans: The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is an interlude in the history of India. There is nothing extraordinary about the politician and the history associated with the Sungas. The significance of their history, on the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social and cultural history of India.
The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or 184 B.C. After him there were nine other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata and Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were associated with some events in political history, whereas the latter two were known for their long rule, being 32 and 10 years respectively.
There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It was stated in a Sutra that he belonged to a family of teachers. Patanjali claims that he was a brahmin or the Bhardwaja gotra. Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A Malavikagnimitram refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap gotra.
After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few wars to consolidate his position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by Patanjali’s Mahabhashya. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela of Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained because Kharavela ruled in the second half of the first century B.C. Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga, defeated the Yavanas.
This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and Gargi Samhita. Both Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule of the Sungas ending C. 75 B.C.
Some scholars regard that the establishment of the Sunga dynasty was symbolic of the brahmanical reaction to the Mauryan bias towards Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic sacrifices of asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeyi.
But some facts of his region clearly show that he did not persecute Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana, that Pushyamitra Sunga destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered shrameans, has no corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway and the massive stone railing that aroused Sanchi stupa were executed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the Bharhut stupa and the sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence during the same period.
One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was Champadevi, wife of the Idisha King, who was a worshipper of Vishnu. This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance prevailing during the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be found at Mathura, Kausambi and Sarnath).
If at all there was anything like persecution of Buddhists during the days of Pushyamitra Sunga, it could be in the context of Menander’s invasion. Maybe, the Buddhists of India welcomed the invasion of Menander’ and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath falling on the Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage with the coming of the Sungas apparently enraged the Buddhists and thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated account of their troubles.
The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context of cultural and social development. In the social field, the emergence of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas attempted to revive the caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures the position of the brahmins in the fourfold society. Even then, the most significant development of the Sunga era was marked by various adjustments and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes and the assimilation of the foreigners in Indian society. Thus we notice that Brahminism gradually transformed it-self in a direction towards Hinduism.
In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and became the language of the court. Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great grammarian of Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in the Kavya style and which was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some Buddhist works of this age were written in Sanskrit.
In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist era of the Mauryas. Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture, tradition and ideology than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone replaced wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi. Bharhut stupa is replete with sculptures apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas and human figures.
Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in rich belief. This age definitely witnessed the increasing use of symbols and human figures in architecture. Besides, the Sungas art is a manifestation of popular artistic genius – the artistic activity was because of the initiative of individuals, corporations or villages. A part of the gateway of Sanchi was constructed by the artisans of Vidisha. Even temple building began in this pe. riod. A Vishnu temple was built near Vidisha. There was an in-crease in the construction of rock-cut temple as noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household worship we find the idols of Shiva and Vishnu.
All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restora-tion of Realpolitik while abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field the beginnings as well as accomplishments in sculp-ture and architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of religion too they not only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to new approaches combative towards the heterodox sects the cult of katakana the god of war the resurgence of Bhagavata cult and the supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.
20. Short Essay on Life of the People of Indus Civilization?
Ans: Besides wheat, barley, milk, vegetables, legumes (lentils, chickpea, and field pea), oil (mustard, linseed, and sesamum), millets (finger millet, ragi, bajra, sorghum, jawar) and fruits (date, grape, and jujube) were included in the diet of the Harappan people.
In addition, animal food such as beef, mutton, pork, poultry, river-water fish and dried fish from the sea were also eaten. Grind-stones were used for grinding spices and cereals.
Costumes:
The costume as revealed by the terracotta figurines of the Mother Goddess tells that the ladies were scantily dressed. They wore a short skirt that reached up to the knee; and it was held by a girdle and a string of beads. The male used a robe with or without embroidery.
It was worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. A man on a shred from Harappa wears a closer clinging dhoti. No footwear has survived nor is it shown in any of the figures Cotton was used. There is no evidence of linen or wool, though sheep and goat were known and might have provided enough raw materials.
Hair Styles:
Women took special care of their hair. The dancing girl from Mohenjo Daro has a ponytail. Some females have a plait tied with a bow at the end. The men had several styles of hairdressing. Hair was parted in the middle and tied with a fillet. Sometimes the hair was gathered up in a bun or coiled in a ring on top of the head.
The crawling child depicted on a clay figure from Mohenjo Daro has curly hair. Beards were trimmed and upper lips were shaven. Completely shaven faces with a small beard on a chin are also noticed.
Very long beards were not preferred. Mirrors of bronze were very common.
Ornaments and Jewellery:
With the traditional oriental fondness for ornaments, men and women, both rich and poor, decorated themselves with them and all known semi-precious stones and metals were utilized for manufacturing various ornaments. Women wore fan-shaped head-dresses. Small cones of gold, silver, copper, and faience, as also of shell, were worn on the sides of the head. The forehead was decorated with a fillet or a headband. Earrings were made of coils of gold, silver, copper, or faience.
It is doubtful whether any nose ornaments were used. There was a variety of necklaces having pendants in the middle with a number of rows of beads of various shapes and materials artistically arranged using spacers and terminals.
Finger Rings were plentiful, and bangles and bracelets of gold, silver, copper, bronze, faience, shell, and pot-tery were commonly used. Gold and silver bangles were penannular in shape with their hollows filled with a fibrous or a black core. A bracelet with six strings of globular beads is an excellent specimen of workmanship.
Girdles, of which two fine specimens have been found, were worn round the waist. Anklets, of the type still used by hill women, were worn. Various stones such as carnelian, steatite, agate, chalcedony, jasper, etc. were used for the manufacture of beads which evince fine workmanship and technical skills on the part of the lapidary. Of the various ornaments mentioned above, men wore fillets, necklaces, fingerings, and armlets; a yellow steatite pectoral was probably the in-signia of the office of a priest.
Cosmetics:
Toilet jars were made of ivory, metal, pottery, and stone. Small faience vessels having four compartments were used for keeping expensive perfumes or cosmetics. It appears that the ladies at Mohenjodaro knew of the use of collyrium, face-paint and other cosmetics. Small cockle shells containing a red ochre-rouge, lumps of green earth, white face-paint and black beauty substance show that the belles in ancient Sind attended to beauty and toilet culture.
It is interesting to note that Chanhudaro finds indicate the use of lipsticks. Carbonate of lead, a facepaint, may also have been em-ployed as an eye-ointment or hair- wash. Round metal rods in copper and bronze, with both ends rounded and polished, were probably used for applying cosmetics.
There were small toilet tables specially designed for women. Other articles on the dressing table included oval-shaped bronze mirrors, and ivory combes of different shapes. Some combs were probably worn in the hair. Bronze razors of various types served for the toilet of the male.
Music and Dance:
A pair of castanets has been found. A drum hangs from the neck of a figure in pottery. Some of the signs of the script look like harps and lyres. Music and dance were both secular and religious.
Hunting and Fishing:
People enjoyed non-vegetarian food. Remains of stage, buffalo, pig, turtle, goat, ox and fish have been found. Sometimes in large jars, used as larders, the bones of oxen, sheep and goats have been found. Animal sacrifice was in vogue. On a few seals, hunting of wild rhino and antelope are shown.
Copper arrowheads and small pellets of clay used in sling were employed for bird shooting. Models of several hunting dogs including bulldogs have been found. Cock-fighting is seen on one seal. Par-tridges were trained to fight. Fishing was a regular occupation. A number of fish hooks have been traced. Traps were used for mice.
Customs and Amusements: Games and Sports
A large number of toys and objects used in games have been unearthed from all the important sites. My favourite toy was the baked clay cart. Rattles in the form of hollow balls with pellets inside are many. Singing birds were kept in cages. A whistle shaped like a bird, a small animal climbing up the pole and models of household vessels were the pastimes of the children.
Bulls with nodding heads, monkeys with movable arms, figures which ran up and down a string were complex toys and must have been produced by professional toymakers. Dice were used in gambling. Chessmen of stone have been found. A brick has been marked out for a game played with pebbles.
Marbles of Jasper and chert were played by rich children. Numerous small cones of pottery might be playthings or ninepins and the marbles were used to knock them down.
21. Brief notes on the introduction of Vedic Literature in India?
Ans: The word Veda comes from the root vid, i.e. to know, signifying knowledge. The Sanskrit root vid also appears in the Latin Videre ‘to see’. The Vedas are said to have been passed on from one generation to the next through verbal transmission and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear) or ‘Revelation’.
The term ‘Vedic Literature’ means the four Vedas in their Samhitas and the allied literature based on or derived from the Vedas.
We classify the Vedic literature into the following categories:
(i) the four Vedas, i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas,
(ii) The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita;
(iii) The Aranyakas; and
(iv) The Upanishads.
The Vedas
The Rigveda: of the four Vedas (the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), the Rigveda is the oldest religious text in the world, and, therefore, is also known as ‘the first testament of mankind’. It must have been composed around 1700 BC.
The first three Vedas are collectively known as Trayi or ‘trio”. Initially, the Vedas were learnt by heart and then passed on from the teachers to the disciples until they were properly edited, written down and commented in South India during the second half of the four-teenth century AD.
The last hymns were probably composed between 1500 and 1200 BC. The Rigveda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. The Rigveda contains 1017 (1028, including 11 hymns of the valakhilya recension) hymns (sukta) and is divided into ten mandalas.
The first and the tenth mandalas are said to have been added later as their language differs slightly from the other eight mandalas. The tenth mandala contains the famous Purusha Sukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Primeval Being Brahma (Puruso).
The Samaveda derived from the root Saman, i.e. ‘melody’, is a ‘collection of melodies’. It has 1603 verses (Aundh edition) but except 99 all the rest of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rigveda. A lesser number of verses are found in certain other editions. In them we have 1549 verses and of these only 78 are not found in the Rigveda. These were meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests.
The Yajurveda is a ritual Veda. It prescribes the rituals for per-forming different sacrifices. It was the manual of the Adhvaryus who prepared the ground and the altar, offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations. Two distinct forms of this Veda have come down to us. In the oldest, the instructions about rituals are mingled with the verses from the Rigveda.
The chief recension of this is that taught by a school of teachers called the Taittiriya. At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter from the verses to be recited and hence were called ‘white’ (Shukla) Yajurveda, the other being called the ‘black’ (Krishna) Yajurveda. Yajurveda contains the oldest prose literature of the Indo Europeans.
The Atharvaveda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologically the last of the four. It is important and interesting. ing as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas.
The Satapatha-Brahmana uses the term trayi-vidya for the Rig, Sama and Yajur Vedas. The Atharva veda is found in two recensions, the Saunakiya and Paippałada. It is now considered as one of the four Vedas. It is divided into 20 Kandas (books) and has 711 hymns-most of which tell us how to ward off the evil spirits.
The hymns of the Vedas are also called Suktas: a term derived from su-uktas, i.e. ‘that which is well or properly recited’. This term is used for a Vedic hymn as a whole as distinguished from a richa or single verse.
The Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads all together constitute the later-Vedic literature.
22. Brief notes on the Vedic Literature of India?
Ans: The wisdom and knowledge of the Aryans is contained in their sacred literature, collectively known as the Vedic literature.
Early Vedic Literature:
1. The Vedas are the oldest and the most sacred books of the Aryans, and are four in number: the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.
2. The Brahmanas are the prose texts containing observations on the various sacrificial rites and ceremonies.
3. The Aranyakas, also known as the ‘Forest Books’, are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and deal with mysticism and philosophy.
4. The Upanishads are the main source of Indian philosophy and have found an important place in the history of world literature, hav-ing been translated into various foreign languages like English, French, German and Persian. They are about 300 in number, the more promi-nent ones being Isa, Kena, Katha, Mundaka and Brihadranyaka.
Later Vedic Literature:
1. The Sutras: They are a collection of the various new customs developed with the passage of time and are divided into three classes Srauta-Sutras, Griha-Sutras and Dharma-Sutras.
2. Vedangas and Upavedas: Vedangas are a part of Vedic texts and deal with religious practices, pronunciation, grammar, etymology (science of words), metro and astronomy. The Upavedas deal with subjects such as medicine, music, art and architecture and war.
The important Upavedas are Ayurveda, Gandharvaveda, Dhanurveda and Shilpa Veda.
3. Six Shastras: These are the six well-known schools of Hindu philosophy, known as Darshanas or Shastras. In these, the ancient sages have tried to give answers to certain difficult philosophical questions concerning God, soul, birth and death. These are Sankhya Shastra by Kapila, Yoga Shastra of Patanjali, Nyaya Shastra of Gautama, Vaisheshik Shastra of Kanad, Puna Mimansa of Jamini and Uttarr Mimansa of Vyasa.
4. The Puranas: They are the ancient texts of Hindus and are 18 in number.
5. The Epics: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two great epics of Hinduism, which throw an important light on the social, religious, economic and political life of the Vedic Age Aryans.
6. Dharma Shastras: These are a very important source of infor-mation about the laws and judicial procedures of the Aryans. Manu Smriti is the most important of the Dharma Shastras.
22. What are the Main Divisions of Veda?
Ans: There are mainly two divisions of Veda: Sanhita and Brahmana Sanhitas are the most significant part of Vedic literature. The collection of hymns is called Sanhita. These hymns are recited in the worship of different deities of God.
There are four Sanhitas: Rigveda Sanhita, Yajurveda Sanhita, Samveda Sanhita and Atharvaveda Sanhita. The entire sanitas were compiled by the great saint Ved Vyas to cater with the needs of rituals like Yajna.
The Brahmanas are ritualistic, precepts attached to the hymns of the Vedas.
Brahmanas are divided into three parts: Brahmana, Aranyak and Upanishads.
(a) Brahmana:
Although the Brahmana literature contains mainly the elucidation of the hymns (mantra) contained in the Samhitas, its main objective is to provide a detailed description of the religious sacrifices.
Brahmana has also been called ‘Brahma literature’. Here ‘Brahma’ literally means religious sacrifice, i.e., yajna. All the four Vedas have their individual Brahmanas.
The Rig Veda has two Brahmanas, namely Aitareya and Kaushitaka; the Sama Veda has eight of which the best known are the Pancha Vimsa, the Tandya and the Shad Vimsa: the Yajur Veda has two Taittiriya and Satapatha and the Atharva Veda has one Brahmana called Go-patha.
(b) Aranyakas:
Since these literary compositions have been thought and shaped in the forest, these are called Aranyakas. These contain the descrip-tion of philosophical and mysterious subjects.
Aranyakas are the combination of the events of Sanhitas and Brahmanas and the philosophy of Upanishads. In all, as is believed, there are seven Aranyakas.
(c) Upanishads:
As these constitute the concluding portion of Vedas, these are also called Vedanta. The Upanishads contain mystical and philosophical doctrines.
For the contemplative mind no study is more enthralling than that of the Upanishads, as they provide the in-depth explanation of God, life and the universe.
The better known Upanishads are the Aitareyaand Kaushitakaof the Rig Vedcr,the Tailtiriya, Brihadaranyakaand Isaof the Yajur Veda; the Chandyogyaand Ken a of the Sama Veda”, and the Prasala, Mundaka, Mundukya and Katha of the Atharva Veda.
23. Short Essay on the Role of Brahmanas of Aryan Civilization?
Ans: The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas in an ortho-dox manner. They are written in prose and are ritualistic in nature. The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed along with their mystic meanings.
Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The two Brahmanas appended to the Rigveda are Aitareya Brahmana and Kausitiki Brahmana.
These were composed by Hotri or Sankhyayana priests. The Samaveda has Jaiminiya Brahmana and Tandyamaha Brahmana also known as the Panchamsa Brahmana. These were composed by Udgatri priests.
To the Sukla Yajurveda is attached Satapatha Brahmana which recommends ‘one hundred sacred paths’ (shatapatha). It is the most exhaustive and important of all the Brhamanas. It narrates the progress of culture from Kuru-Panchal to Videha. It was composed by Adhvaryu priests.
We have two recensions of Satapatha Brahmana namely Madhyandina and Kanva. The Taittiriya Brahmana is part of the Krisna Yajurveda. The Gopatha Brahmana is attached to the Atharavada. The Brahmanas, in fact, are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas to which they are appended. They are known as Litur-gies.
24. Write down the political system of vedic period?
Ans: In the Vedic period, each village had a head known as gramani. A group of villages formed a vish, whose head was called vishpati. Several vish formed a jana. When the jana settled into a specific region, It came to be known as a janapada. The head of the jana was known as nripa or raja. The main duties of Raja were to protect the people, collect taxes and run the administration efficiently.
Purohit and the senapati of the army were officers who helped the king to manage the administration properly.
The officer who collected the taxes was known as bhagdugh.
There were four institutions which guided the king: sabha,samiti, vidath and jana.
Womens were also participated in the working of sabha and vidath. The sabha consisted of senior citizens of the State while the samiti was a general body of the people. Later samiti and puranas were com-posed. After a period of time, the religious stream based on the Vedas, Smritis, Puranas and local traditions came to be known as Hinduism
Later samiti and puranas were composed. After a period of time, the religious stream based on the Vedas, Smritis, Puranas and local traditions came to be known as Hinduism.
25. What are the Literary sources of ancient Indian history?
Ans: 1. Religious Literature: History is not a record of only the rulers. It is mostly an account of the people’s life and living. The literature of every time is like a mirror of that time. Mental and social conditions of the people are known from literary sources.
The Religious Literature of India is too vast. It includes the Vedas, the Upanishads, the great epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Puranas of the Hindus. These are like mines of information about religious beliefs, social systems, people’s manners and customs, political institutions, and conditions of culture.
The religious writings of the Jainas and the Buddhists are also enormous. They include the Jatakas and the Angas etc. While dealing with religious subjects, they also write about historical persons and political events. Contemporary economic and social conditions are vividly known from these sources.
2. Secular Literature: There are many kinds of secular or non-religious literature. The law-books of ancient India known as Dharmasutras and Smritis belong to this group. They contain code of duties for kings, administrators, and people. They also contain rules regarding property, and prescribe punishments for murder, theft and other crimes.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a famous work. It not only speaks of the State and polity, but also of the socio-economic system. Authors like Patanjali and Panini, though they wrote Sanskrit grammar, also described some political events. The dramas of Kalidasa, Vishakhadatta, and Bhasa give us useful information about the people and society.
There were some historical writings too. Bana wrote Harshacharita or the Life of Harsha. Bilhana wrote about Vikramaditya. Kalhana’s Rajatarangini was a historical text of great value. It is an account of the history of Kashmir. It presents the career of the Kings in chronological order. Chand Bardai wrote Prithviraj Charita. There are many other biographical works and chronicles which contain historical information.
Historians try to find correct material for history from all such literary sources.
3. Accounts of Foreigners: From very ancient times, foreigners visited India. Some of them left valuable accounts of their travels or visits. Ancient Greek and Roman historians also wrote about India from their knowledge and information. All these foreign accounts prove useful for writing history.
We know of Chandragupta Maurya’s victory over the Greeks from the Greek accounts. They mentioned him as Sandrokottas in their writings. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes stayed in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and wrote his famous work Indika. Unfortunately this work was lost. But fragments from it were preserved in the quotations by other Greek writers. But even those brief accounts are regarded as most precious to know about Mauryan polity and society.
From works such as Ptolemy’s Geography, we know of India’s ports and harbours. From Pliny’s work we know of trade relations between Rome and India. These writers wrote in early centuries of the Christian era. The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien left valuable accounts on the time of the imperial Guptas. Hieuen Tsang, who is described as the ‘Prince of Pilgrims’ wrote details about the India of the age of Harsha. Another Chinese, Itsing, visited India in 7the century A.D. His accounts contain the socio-religious condition of those days.
Travellers from the Islamic world also visited India. Al Beruni who came at the time of Mahmud of Ghazani studied Sanskrit himself. His writings on ‘Hind’ give useful information.
History demands devotion to truth. Historians construct history from various sources to present the truth of the past to the men of today and the future.
26. Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
Ans: Many similarities between Jainism and Buddhism are seen;
some of them are as follows:
(1) Both religions don’t believe in the existence of the creator God.
(2) Both religions believe in the cycle of birth and rebirth, and salvation can only be gained by nirvana.
(3) Jainism and Buddhism both didn’t believe in the varnas of the caste; they helped others and taught their values to others.
(4) Both religions propagated in Magadh.
(5) Both religions believe in helping other people.
(6) Both religions believe in the purification of the soul.
(7) Both religions teach to stay away from the materialistic world and desires.
27. Difference between Jainism and Buddhism.
Ans: Here are the major difference between these two are as follow:
(i) Between these two, Jainism was the one that acknowledged the presence of God, while Buddhism did not recognise God.
(ii) Jainism does not criticise the varna system. Meanwhile, Buddhism does.
(iii) Buddhism does not acknowledge reincarnation, while Jainism does.
(iv) Buddhism specifies a middle path while Jainism endorses its believers to live a life of complete strictness.
28. What are the main factors of Jainism?
Ans: The main factors of Jainism are:
(i) Ahimsa.
(ii) Satya.
(iii) Brahmacharya.
(iv) Aparigraha.
(v) Asteya.
29. What is the main philosophy of Jainism?
Ans: According to Jainism, it is believed that humans are en-compassed with the material body and spiritual soul. The consciousness and unconsciousness, which is jiva and ajiva, are two things that encompass the entire human existence.
30. Notes on the Concept of Bharatavarsha?
Ans: Described as the fertile crescent, India has thus been the source of inspiration for the world by virtue of her rich cultural heri-tage. The earliest name of India was ‘Bharatvarsha¹. A few historians say that this name is derived from the Bhatara tribes that inhabited the land. But everybody knows that it is named after Bharata, the mighty son of king Dushyanta and his queen Sakuntala. Bharatavarsha (the land of Bharata), the ancient name of India, is also mentioned in the preamble of the constitution of India.
The name, India, is derived from two sources. The ancient Greeks called the river Sindhu as ‘Indus’. The Persians called it ‘Hindu’. So it came to be known as ‘Ind’ or ‘Hind’. The land of ‘Ind’ or ‘Hind’ has become known as India and Hindustan. The British gave wider usage to the name ‘India’.
Interestingly, India was also known as ‘Jambudvipa’. This name was in vogue in 3rd century B.C,. The ancient Indians had visualized the world as consisting of seven island continents of which the core was ‘Jambu-dvipa’, supposedly the best of the lot. Today, this name has fallen into disuse, and one comes across it only in books and scriptures.
Environment and personality are two vital factors in the study of history. The physical features of a country determine its history. Rich-ard Hakluyt has aptly described geography and chronology as the two eyes of history. The history of India has largely been shaped by its geography.
31. Notes on the physical features of Bharata Varsa?
Ans: India was the cradle of civilization, the Fertile Crescent.from which sprang up its rich cultural heritage that drew the attention of the world. Our country was known as Bharata Varsa (The land of the Bharata) after the name of Bharata, the mighty legendary hero and the son of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala.
Historians also predict that perhaps after the name of a tribe called Bhatpara, the country has been so named. The Greeks called river Sindhu as Indus and Persians called it ‘Hindu or Hindu”. Thus this land of ours was known as Hind’ and ‘Ind’ to the Persians and Greeks, respectively. During the medieval time, India was known as Hindustan.
During the British period it was famous as India, the name through which it is known to the world even today. This unique land of ours projects its peculiar feature- unity in diversity.
Physical Features of Bharat Varsa:
In the graphic language of Richard Hackly, “Geography and chro-nology are the sun and the moon, the right eye and left eye of history.” Thus, it is very much essential to study the geographical features of India while going through its history and culture. The course of Indian history like other countries of the world has been determined by its geography.
Geographically India has been divided into four natural divisions such as:
(1) Mountain-ranges of the Himalayas as in the North.
(2) The great Indo-Gangetic plain.
(3) The Deccan plateau.
(4) Coastal Ghats.
Mountain-ranges of the Himalayas in the North:
On the North of the Country are located the Himalayan moun-tains, which spread out both to the east as well as west. These moun-tains are roughly 1500 miles in length and stretch from Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east. The hills like Hindu Kush, Suleiman, Safed Koh and Kithara lie in the north-western region while the hills like Khasi, Jaintya, Patkoi, Lushai, etc. are located in the eastern part. It may be noted that the mountains located in the North are compara-tively high. The eastern ranges though not quite high are covered with dense forests. This is mainly due to the excessive rains in these regions.
Till very recent times these ranges were considered as inacces-sible. Dr. R.C. Majumdar observes.” The Himalaya is the most inac-cessible frontier that nature has designed for any country, but even here there are roads from Tibet to Nepal that have carried for ages not merely peaceful missionaries of culture and religion, but on rare occasions even formidable hosts of soldiers as well.” This myth was exploded only when the Chinese attacked India from this side in 1962.
In the North-west mountainous ranges certain passes across the Hindu Kush served as channels of commercial and cultural exchange between India and countries on the other side. The most prominent passes are Khyber, Tochi. Kara, Kurram, Gomals, Bolan. It was through these passes that almost all the invaders right from the times of the Aryans came to India.
Some of the prominent invaders who entered India through these Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, Turks, Mongols, Mughals, Afghans, etc. Though these invaders came to this country mainly with a view to plunder the riches, they left a deep impact on the culture and institutions of the country. Some of the Indian missionaries, travelers also left through these passes to spread Indian culture and civilization abroad.
In short, we can say that the Himalayans have not only cut off India from the outside world but have also constituted India into a world by itself. Some of the prominent rivers which have made our lands fertile also originate from the Himalayas. In the words of Dr. Ray Choudhury, “The stupendous maintenance chain which fences this country from the rest of Asia, while it constituted India a world by itself, favored the growth of a distinct type of civilization.
“Indo-Genetic Plain:
The Indo-Genetic Plain is spread from Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea and is roughly 200 miles long and 200 miles in length. This plain embraces the valley of the Indus and its tributaries, the deserts of Sindh and Rajputana as well as regions watered by the Ganges, the Jamuna and the Brahmaputra. This plain was formed as a result of the deposits of rich soil washing the Himalayas and other hills of the south for a number of centuries. It is mainly because of these rivers and their tributaries that this plain became a very fertile and prosperous region.
This richness and fertility of the land resulted in the establishment of a number of big towns, centers of trade and capitals during all the periods of Indian history. Most of the important events worth recording took place in these plains. Its enormous wealth and resources were the sources of temptation for foreign invaders.
Most of the mighty kingdoms of ancient times like those of Chandra Gupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudra Gupta, Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya, Harsh Vardhan, Ala-ud-din and Akbar, flourished in those regions. This region was also a centre for the great religious movements like Jainism and Buddhism.
Due to the richness and the easy accessibility of daily needs, the people of this region had enough time at then-disposal, which they fruitfully utilized for the development of art and literature. This explains the reaps-on why the people from this region were able to create some of the highest specimens of art and literature right from the earliest times.
The prosperity of this region has also been responsible for the misery and sufferings of the inhabitants. A number of Muslim invaders like Mahmud Ghaznawi and Mohammad Ghori repeated in various ways in India only with a -view to amass and plunder the rich booty which they could expect. But for the riches available in these plains. These invaders would not have attacked India. Some of the destructive wars since the earliest times of history were also fought in this region.
Some of the important battles which took place in these regions include the battle of Mahabharata, Tarain, Karnal and Panipat. After the settlement of the Muslims in this region a cultural assimilation took place. It greatly enriched tiled Indian culture and civilization and exercised tremendous influence on the course of our history.
The Deccan Plateau:
The Deccan plateau lies to the south of the Genetic Plain and is separated by the Vindhyas and Satpuras. This area stretches from Vindhyas to Cape Clamoring. On its west are situated the Western Ghats and in the east the Eastern Ghats. The important rivers running in this region are Mahanadi, Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari, Narmada and Tapti.
With the exception of Narmada and Tapti all other important rivers flow eastward into the day of Bengal. The rivers of the south are not as useful as means of communication, as the rivers of the north. The Deccan Pennies ulna is a triangular table-land rising abruptly in the west loping-way towards the east.
This area is considered to be the oldest part of India. The area lying to the South of Krishna and Tungha bhadra is known as Far-South. The present territories of Mysore and. Tamil Nadu constitutes this region. This natural division of the north arced the south by the Vindhyas has completely kept the two regions apart and two separate cultures, which have no connection with each other, flourished in these two regions.
On the northern side of the Deccan Plateau, the Vindhyas and the Satpura ranges exist. These areas are covered with dense forests which are very difficult to cross.
The inaccessibility of these regions led to the conception of other different countries in India-Aryabrata and Dakshinapatha in the ancient times.
Most of the Indian rulers never made any attempt to combine these two regions into one political unit. Only some of the prominent rulers like Ashoka, Samudragupta Alla-ud-din Khiliji, Muhaammad Tughld and Aurangzeb tried to bring both these regions under their control. But they found it difficult to retain this control for nags.
As a result South India remained mostly cut off from northern India and developed a culture and history of its own. One of the advan-tage of these separation according to one historian has been that, “In difficult and trouble sometimes the culture of the north could always seek refuge in the Deccan.
When Buddhism became dominant in the north, grammatical religion and culture made their way to the south, and thus were enabled to survive and later to regain power and ascendance in the north. Similarly, the Jains sought refuse in the south, The ‘refugee northern literature and culture were welcomed by the great Andhra, Chola, Chalukya, Yauhleyas and Hoysala rulers of the south. However, with the introduction of the modern scientific inventions these barriers have broken down and the two regions have been politically knit-together.
The Eastern and Western Ghats (Coastal Ghats):
The plain of the south extends from the eastern Sea-coast to the western sea-coast and contains some of the rich ports like Konkan and Malabar. The fertile deltas of Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are also located here. Along with Deccan table-land a high mountain-ous wall runs parallel to the shores of the Arabian Sea which are popu-larly known as Western Ghats. Their length is roughly 700 miles. Similarly in the east, the region is known as Eastern Ghats.
The Western Ghats are 3,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level and possess a number of flat-topped peaks. The Marathas built fortresses on these peaks and played an important role in the history of the country. The area between the coast and the foot of the Ghats is highly productive and produces large quantities of rice and coconut. These regions are not easily accessible and therefore remained isolated from the rest of Deccan for a long time.
As a result certain practices and customs developed in these regions which are not found elsewhere in India. The Eastern Ghats, however, are much broader and are easily acces-sible to communication. This resulted in the growth of a number of important cities and kingdoms in those regions. The contact with the outside countries like Jawa, Sumatra, Burma, Siam and Indo-China was also obtained through the parts of the Eastern Ghats.
Thus, geography has influenced the course of Indian history to a great extent. It has created different local zones with political and cultural units. The primitive culture of this land was maintained by its forests, deserts, mountains and river valleys. The physical features of this land had created warrior races, facilitated maritime activities, cultural linkages and had contributed a lot for the growth of art and architecture.
32. Short Notes on the Tamils of the Sangam Age?
Ans: When the Satavahanas were building an empire in the Deccan, the Tamils in their homeland were divided into three monarchies and a number of petty principalities and ruled themselves.
The Tamils called their homeland Tamilaham which the Greeks who traded with them knew as Damirike. Tamilaham denoted a cul-tural area and included all the land lying to the south of Venkatam (the Tirumalai hills) in the north-east and of Mysore in the north-west and the triangular strip of land lying between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
As we have seen in the chapter on ‘Geography’ this territory has the varied characteristics of agricultural lands, pastures, the forests, the littoral and the tracts reduced to waste by the denudation of fertile lands. The Tamils perhaps thought that these geographical features were common to the whole world and so made a theoretical postulate that all territories everywhere consist of these divisions.
We have also seen how the Dravidians trekking south-eastwards from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean reached the Tamil country in the proto-historic times and as a racial layer imposed themselves on the pre-existing proto-Australoids. Some of them settled themselves on the banks of rivers, some others cleared the forest and dwelt therein and a few others settled on the coastal areas and minded their accustomed occupation of navigation.
It is difficult to say when these things happened. But ever since the dawn of history we hear of the three monarchies namely the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya. The earliest mention of one of these i.e., the Pandyas occurs in Megasthenes. His contemporary (if he was that) Kautilya also mentions the Pandyas.
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana also do so. But the first source to mention all the three together are the edicts of Asoka, who in his commands (numbers 2 and 13) mentions not only the three Tamil king-doms but also neighbouring states like Ceylon and the land of the Satiyaputras.
33. Short notes on the Learning, Literature & Religion of Sangam Tamils?
Ans: The Kural and a certain beautiful verse in the Purananuru by the Pandyan Nedunjeliyan emphasize the value of learning. The civilisation of the Sangam Tamils was the product of liberal and technical education.
They knew enough science, mathematics, engineering, astronomy, logic and ethics to sustain this civilization. Their literature is an index of their refinement in thought and expression.
There was no institutional system of education but merely an oral tradition of teachers to teach by word of mouth and from generation to generation. Kanakkayar was an ancient Tamil teacher. Technical and craft education was imparted at home by father to son. Memory was a necessary and chief instrument of transmission of knowledge Originality was not a conspicuous feature of their educational goals,
The educational process aimed at remembering the past and not critically analyzing it. The idea was to secure conformism and the press. ervation of the tradition. The Brahmins learnt and taught the Vedas and allied studies. There were other students who were interested in Tamil studies.
The princes of the royal family learnt the art of war in military schools. The marchland princes perhaps learnt some arithmetic and accounting and calculation of interest rates. Even the illiterates stored up some knowledge by listening to literate scholars and many others had no need for any kind of education.
Literature:
The Sangam Tamils are rightly famous for the remarkable literature they produced. Barring Sanskrit and some kinds of Prakrit, Tamil produced the earliest literature in India. The body of literature they produced and which is called the Sangam literature belonged to the six centuries between the third century BC and the third century AD
There is, however, a difference of opinion as to what texts comprise the Sangam literature. The most orthodox view holds that the Tolkappiyam, Ettuttogai (eight anthologies), Pattupattu (an anthology of ten long verses) and most of the eighteen (minor) works known as the Padinenkilkkanakku as well as the Tagadur Yattirai and the Muthollayiram along with the two epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai constitute the Sangam literature. A more restricted view is that only the Ettuthogai and some of the Pattupattu belong to this age.
According to them even the Tolkappiyam, the Tirumurugarruppadai (a devotional song on Murugan by Nakkirar, the famous Sangam poet), the Paripadal and the Kural belong to later times. The Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are dated in the 8th century on grounds which seri-ous scholarship would disdain even to look at. But it is undeniable that the Sangam Tamils produced a body of literature which is credit-able by any standard of criticism. It has been computed that nearly 600 poets contributed to this literature.
Among these the more important were the Brahmin poets Kapilar and Nakkirar, the Brahmin grammarian Tolkappiar (who belonged to the Kavya gotra claiming a descent from Sukra, the famous Kavi who was the Brahmin Purohita of the Asuras of mythology) and royal po-ets like Nedum Seliyan, Nalluruttiran, etc., Vaisya poets like Sattanar of Madurai, poetesses like Auvaiyar, Vellividiyar and many others belonging to different castes and from either sex contributed to this literature.
It was largely secular either in the nature of praising the patron or describing a love situation or describing a battle or commemorating a benefaction; there were didactic works prescribing the canons of literary composition or there was also to some extent devotional poetry.
Epics like the Silappadikaram crowned the literary efforts of the Sangam Tamils. The Tagadur Yattirai was an unusual piece of literature which narrated the historical events pertaining to the storming and reduction of the fortress of Tagadur by the Chera king Perum Serai Irumporai. Perungadai, an adaptation of Gunadya’s Brihatkatha originally written in the Paisachi Prakrit, was written by Konguvel, a prince. It can be classed among the greatest of Tamil epics. Perhaps it was composed during the fag end of the Sangam period or the dawn of the Pallava age.
In the Sangam age religion was a sort of melting pot. Primitive village gods, the totemic symbols, bloody sacrifice to appease fero-cious deities, the tradition of exercising ghosts, belief in deities which resided in trees, in streams and on hilltops characterised the earlier stratum of Tamilian religious consciousness; the four kinds of deities mentioned by the tolkappiyam as appropriate to different landscape, Kurinji, Mullai, Marudam and Palai were Murugan, Tirumal, Vendan (Indran) and Varunan respectively are another category of classification of popular deities.
Worship of these was organised by the people in the respective regions and the nature of the worship depended upon the culture of the locality. A third and more sophisticated aspect of their religion was worship of gods and goddesses in temples. Fallen heroes, Satis and other varieties of martyrs were deified and worshipped. Literature sang the praises of these deities.
That was also the period during which many of the old deities assumed fresh characteristics and were equated with similar deities or gods, like Muruga-Subrahmanya, Siva-Rudra, Mayon-Vishnu, Kali-Parvathi and the Perunchadukkattu Bhudam-Ganesa identifications. Krishna of Mahabharata was fully deified while Rama was only in the stage of an admired hero.
Centres of religious importance like Tirupati, Madurai, Tiruchendur, Puhar, Vanji, Kanchi were few but significant. Hindus, Jains, the Bauddhas, primitive totem worshippers, etc., coexisted in that society without generating serious controversies. The Manimekalai gives an indication of the Hinayana system of Buddhist philosophy known to the scholars of that religion in Kanchi under the leadership of Aravana Adigal.
Some modern scholars think that Valluvar was a Jaina; that is doubtful. But that the authors of the Naladiyar, a collection of four hundred remarkable verses, were Jains is undoubted. The Bhakti age had not dawned. The age of tolerance was still on.
34. Short Essay on the sangam literature?
Ans: Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Sangam literature for the reason that the anthologies of odes, lyrics and idylls that form the bulk of that literature were com-posed by a body of Tamil scholars or poets in three successive literary academies called ‘Sangam’. These akademies were established by the Pandyan kings.
The term ‘Sangam’ in the sense of ‘academy of poets’ is a late currency. It was first referred to by Tirunavukkarasu Nayanar (Appar), the Shiva or Saiva saint belonging to the early seventh century in the Tripputtur Tiruttanndaham. The next reference is to be found in the commentary to the Iraiyanar Apparel belonging to the ninth century AD.
This text talks about three successive Sangams, i.e. first Sangam or Talai Sangam, the middle Sangam or Idai Sangam and the last Sangam or Kadai Sangam. In the traditional accounts, the first Sangam was constituted at the first Pandyan capital at Ten-Madurai.
On the occasion of a ‘deluge’, the Pandyan capital and the Sangam was shifted to Kapatapuram, which was also engulfed by sea, and the capital as well as the Sangam were again shifted to Madurai, an inland city. On these occasions of deluge, many texts were lost. Silappadikaram and Kalittogai refer to the “loss of territory by deluge”.
Before the seventh century AD the alternative term for Sangam was Avaiyam or Kudal or its variant Kuttu or Punarkuttu or even Togai.
35. Give an account of the Religion of the Sangam Tamils?
Ans: Religion in the Sangam Age was associated with rituals and a certain amount of metaphysical thought. The religion of the Sangam Age was not uniform; it was an “intangible network of quasi-religious customs and practices.” Their rituals were related to animism and other forms of anthropomorphic deity worship.
The whole whole philosophies of reincarnation, hero worship, ancestor worship, sati worship etc. were related to death. Animism accounts for a good part of Tamil Sangam religion and comprises worship of stones, water, stars and planets. A mere planted log of wood called kandu was an object of worship for it was believed that a deity resided in that log of wood.
Three strands of religion, clearly marked off from each other, are discernible during the Sangam period: (a) the indigenous gods and systems of worship; (b) the exotic Hindu gods and systems of worship; and (c) the exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions.
The Vedic religion had struck root in the south, which is proved by references to the costly sacrifices performed by monarchs of the age. Brahmins, devoted to their studies and religious duties, held a high position in society.
The worship of Subrahmanya (Murugan) and the legendary achievements of that deity are often alluded to in contemporary literature. The hunters of the hill tracts worshipped Mu Murugan as the God of the hillock. Indra, God of Marudam, was worshipped by the agriculturists. There was a special festival instituted in Puhar in honour of Indra. The fishermen and the people of the coastal regions wor-shipped Varuna, the god of the wide ocean. Korravai was the goddess of victory.
Among the established gods worshipped according to rituals, the three eyed god (Siva), Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra seem to have been the most important. Murugan was the deity par excellence of the Tamils. Among the temples in the Sangam Age there is specific mention of quite a large number of temples dedicated to different deities. The temple was called Nagar, koil, kottam, purai or devalayam.
The popularity and prevalence of the Brahmanical velvi (yajna) the sraddha and pinda to the dead, fasting etc. are well attested to by the Sangam literature. During the Sangam Age, Buddhism and Jainism also flourished together, but were subordinate to the Brahmanical Vedic religion. The Tamils of the Sangam Age were aware of certain spiritual and philosophical truths, such as concepts of body and soul, superiority of destiny, dying for a noble cause and so on.
In the sphere of religion, we find a mixture of practices and beliefs of diverse origin often jointly observed and held by the same sections of the people. The Vedic religion of sacrifice was followed by kings and chieftains. References are not lacking to the performance of Vedic sacrifices and the sacrificial posts, theyupas, those of the Pandya king Mudukudumi Peruvaludi being the best known.
The word yakacalai is used for yajnasala. Individual Brahmins maintained and regularly worshipped the three sacred fires in their houses; they made sacrifices and feasts for gods and guests respectively, rice, ghee and meat figuring prominently in both. Rice mixed with flesh was offered daily to crows on the thresholds of houses. Gifts made to Brahmins were always accompanied by a libation of water. A pantheon of many gods, honoured with temples, where public worship was offered to them, had arisen.
The worship of Vishnu with tulsi (basil) leaves, bells and other accompaniments is mentioned, as also the custom of devotional fasting in the precincts of the temple with the object of obtaining the grace of Vishnu. Vishnu sleeping on the coils of Ananta in Kanchipuram is mentioned in the Perumbanarruppadai.
Shiva as ardhanarishvara (half-man half-woman), his bull Nandi his ganas, in fact the whole gamut of Saivite legends are found together in the invocatory verse of the Purananuru. Siva, Balarama Krishna, and Subrahmanya (better known as Murugan in Tamil) are mentioned together in one poem. The birth of Subrahmanya from Kali and his warlike achievements like the destruction of the asura called Sura are favourite themes of the poets.
The worship of this deity was attended by primitive dances known as velanadal, possibly a survival of an ancient Tamil religious fashion like the dances connected with the worship of Krishna as a shepherd hero. The reference to the worship of the deity of the forest (kaduraikadavul), often identified with Durga, may be another sur-vival of a similar nature.
Though Buddhism and Jainism must have found a footing in the land, there are few references to them in this literature. The mention of sravakas, the lay followers of Jainism, and the Jain monasteries in Madurai and of Indras in the plural are the more noteworthy pieces of evidence pointing to the presence of Jainism. Ascetics wearing orange robes and carrying a tridanda (mukkol) are referred to.
The enjoyment of the pleasures of life is compared to the performers of tapas (austerities) reaping their fruit even in this world. We hear relatively little of domestic rituals. There is, however, a detailed account of prenatal rites designed to ensure that the unborn child will excel in the desired directions after its birth.
There are references both to cremation and burial urns, and to judge only from the trend of these references, cremation and burial appear to have been alternative modes of disposal, and the Manimekalai furnishes evidence that both these and other methods of disposal survived together up to a relatively late age, say the sixth or seventh century AD. Archaeological evidence points to burials, to cremated remains as well as to decorated bodies.
Some light on the funerary rites of the time is thrown by the references to the wife offering a pindam (rice-ball) to her dead husband who was supposed to eat it at the instance of a pulaiyan, before his pyre was kindled.
Indra, Yama, Varuna and Soma (Kubera) are mentioned as the guardians of the four directions: the east, the south, the west and the north respectively, Gods on the basis of caste are also mentioned in the Silappadikaram. Brahma (the four-faced one), the thirty-three devas and the eleven ganas are also mentioned in Thirumurugatrupadai. Umai, Tirumal, Kalaimaga, Aylrani (wife of Indra) were some of the goddesses worshipped.
Analysis of the names of these gods and goddesses makes one thing clear: there seem to be parallel names in Tamil and in Sanskrit for the same Gods Murugan and Subrahmanya, Tirumal and Vishnu, Siva and Rudra.
But it seems probable at least in the case of Murugan, that the entire worship started with the Tamils and Murugan got transformed into Subrahmanya carrying with him his old legends and surrounding himself with more and more new legends and myths. Much accom-modation between indigenous religious practices and exotic Aryan beliefs and rituals seems to have taken place.
Among the temples in the Sangam Age there is specific mention of quite a large number. The temple was called nagar, in latter day inscriptions we also read of vinnagara, meaning the temple of “Vishnu”. Kottam, koil, nagar, or ilo graham place of residence; hence the expression Vishnugriha also meant ‘temple for Vishnu’, name “Siva’ is rarely mentioned in the San literature; but many of his attributes (namely, Three eyed One, the One that destroyed the aerial forts, He that holds the trisula, He that seated under the banyan tree) are given in tni contexts.
Siva, of course had his temple and Kilar advised Pandyan – Palyagasa! Mudukudumipperuvaludi, says that his ro; umbrella should be lowered when he comes to the temple of the Three-eyed One. The temple Indra is mentioned in Silappadikaram and Manimekalai; the festival of Indra was held all pomp by the Chola king in Puhar ai Manimekalai calls it “the festival of the Thousand eyed One”.
His temple was called Vajrakkot for vajra is the divine weapon of Indra commencement of the festival of Indra (Vila Kail was proclaimed by the beat of drums placed on the elephant’s back.
An analysis of the gods worshipped in Sangam Age brings out prominently two fai In the first place, Tirumal as Tirumal and Kannan is quite often mentioned and was worshipped and associated with Valigon (Balade and with Kaman. Secondly, synthesis of the noi Aryan Tamil and the Aryan Vedic deities had begun during this period. The culture of the Sangam Age, as a whole, is a synthesis of the Tamil and Arvai cultures.
36. What was emphasized in the Brahmanical religion in the Later Vedic period?
Ans: The Later Vedic period saw a change in the religious life of the people. Simple prayers and simple sacrifice of the Rig-Vedic period were then replaced by elaborate rituals and sacrifices.
In a word, sacrifice became much more important than prayers. The elaborate ceremonial in the matter of worship gave the Brahmanas a predominant position in the society.
For, they were considered to be the only persons capable of con. ducting the minute rules of ceremonial worship. However, in this period, some of the deities of the Rig-Vedic times lost their previous importance.
On the other hand, Prajapati, ‘the lord of creatures’ occupied supreme position. Besides, some minor gods of the Rig-Vedic days, such as Rudra and Vishnu gained prominence in the Later Vedic period.
In the Later Vedic period the performance of rituals was the most essential part of the Brahmanical religion. Side by side there was also reference to theism in the Later Vedic texts.
That is to say, the idea of belief in God came to be emphasized. Thus it has been stated in the Upanishad that Brahma was the Creator.
Brahma is responsible for the creation of the earth. The life on the earth is also his creation. In other words, it may be said that in the Upanishad Brahma has been described as the God. This is how the idea of God or theism is: born.
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