B.A 1st Semester Understanding India Unit 2 Art and Architecture of Ancient India

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B.A 1st Sem Understanding India Unit 2 Art and Architecture of Ancient India

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Unit 2 Art and Architecture of Ancient India

1. What is the Bhakti Movement?

Ans: The bhakti movement was a remarkable episode of medieval history. It created a new awareness in Indian society. The religious thought of time came under new influence. Man’s spiritual outlooks were enriched. The culture of the age received fresh vigor.

A number of famous saints preached the cult of Bhakti. Bhakti or devotion was shown as the simplest way to reach God. There was no necessity for deep philosophical knowledge, costly ceremonies, or difficult rituals. Surrender to God was the only need of true religion. The Bhakti cult carried an emotional appeal to the mind of men.

Among the medieval Bhakti preachers, the following were the most famous:

(a) Ramanuja.

(b) Nimbarka.

(c) Ramananda.

(d) Kabir.

(e) Nanak.

(f) Sri Chaitanya.

2. Essay on the consequences of the Bhakti Movement?

Ans: Medieval Bhakti Movement led to significant results. At a time when religious ideas tended to become dry, lifeless and static, rituals and ceremonies took the place of spiritual enlightenment, the teachings and personality of the saints galvanised the inert masses. 

First, the Bhakti Movement was a wide spread movement and it covered the entire country. The main objective of Bhakti thinkers was to reform Hindu religion. It virtually created a revolution in Hindu society. 

Secondly, this movement broke the barriers of casteism. People began to realise that all are equal before God.

Thirdly, the Bhakti Movement tried to achieve two practical objects. The one that it tried to reform Hinduism by discarding image worship and the caste system. The other objective was to promote a feeling of brotherhood among Hindus and Muslims.

Fourthly, the preachers of the Bhakti Cult attempted to bridge the gulf between Hinduism and Islam.

Fifthly, the Bhakti preachers restored the loyalty of low class Hindus to their religion by preaching equality of all men. Their strong protest against Brahmanical Orthodoxy led to a major reform in Hindu society. The simple idea of the Bhakti Movement that God is kind to all devotees destroyed the basis of orthodox Hinduism.

Sixthly, the Bhakti Movement promoted tolerance and synthesis between Hinduism and Islam. Instead of entering into conflict, with each other they tried to understand the philosophy of their respec-tive religions, their ceremonies, and tried to ensure harmony. A new cult known as the Cult of Satya Pir appeared under the initiative of king Husain Shah of Jaunpur, and both sects started worshipping it and this paved the way for the liberal ideas of Akbar, the great Mughal emperor.

Seventhly, the Bhakti Movement made a great impact on vernacular literature and language. The Bhakti preachers used to preach in the language of ordinary people. So everywhere local languages began to develop. New devotional books were written in local languages, Kabir, Nanak in Hindi and Gurumukeri respectively, Sri Chaitanya in Bengali, thereby local languages were enriched.

In Bengali the Chaitanya biographies like Chaitanya Charita Mrita, Chaitanya Bhagabata are very important works. Many Muslims writers translated Sanskrit works into regional languages like Marathi, Maithili and Braja Bhasi. One of the famous contributions of the Bhakti movement during the medieval period in Orissa was the literature produced by the Pancha Sakhas.

The five associates i.e. Achyuta, Balarama, Jagannath, Yasobanta and Ananta created this new Oriya literature by absorbing the influence of medieval Vaishnavism and Bhakti Movement. Finally, the Bhakti Movement by laying stress on the moral values of life not only improved the general character of the society as a whole but also changed Muslim rule into a national Government under Akbar the Great.

3. Brief notes on the rise of Bhakti Movements in India?

Ans: The word ‘Bhakti’ means devotion to God. It has been well known to India since the age of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It has been clearly mentioned in the ‘Bhakti yoga’ of Srimad Bhagavad Gita. But the reform movement called the Bhakti Movement exercised considerable influence upon the people in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

This movement was meant to bridge the gulf between the Hindus and Muslims. Though the main principles of Bhakti cult can be traced back to the age of the Puranas, this movement received an impetus when muslims came to India and settled here.

Hindu society, during the medieval period, was suffering under the weight of certain social and religious practices which were in-compatible with the doctrine of the brotherhood of man. It was a caste-ridden society, which encouraged segregation, untouchability, idol worship and polytheism (worship of many Gods). On the other hand, Islam taught monotheism (worship of one God) and preached the message of universal brotherhood and equality of all human beings. Above all, the practices of Islam were quite simple.

Thus Hinduism came to face a new challenge:

Bhakti Cult:

The Hindu reformers who preached the Bhakti cult saved the situation by preaching a doctrine that aimed at eradicating most of the ills prevailing in Hindu society. The religious leaders of the Hindus intended to purify the Hindu society in order to make it a living force. At the same time, they advised their followers to respect other religions and live in peace and harmony with muslims.

The simple gospel of the Bhakti cult brought great relief to common people, which preached “realisation of God through devotion and love”.

This movement influenced all communities and castes. It aimed at religious harmony, unity and social fraternity. It believed in liberalism and catholicity. The Bhakti movement was linked by common people, because it prescribed a simpler method to realise God.

The Bhakti cult did not prescribe any complicated ceremony or demand a deep knowledge of the scriptures. This movement could give the people the opportunity to attain God through deep devotion.

Thus the Bhakti movement served Indian society in two ways: It tried to bridge the gulf between Hinduism and Islam and saved Hinduism from a real challenge. In fact it helped greatly to check the spread of Islam in India.

The reform movement popularly known as Bhakti cult started in South India in the eighth century A.D. Shankaracharya is said to have been the first and principal exponent of the reform movement After that Ramanuja and Namadeva gave their sermons to people. Gradually this movement also spread to the north. Ramanuja, Vallabhacharya, Kabir, Srichaitanya and Guru Nanak led this move. ment.

We are mostly concerned with the contribution of three leading saints of the Bhakti movement: Kabir, Nanak and Sri Chaitanya.

4. Essays in brief about the three Bhakti Saints Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak?

Ans: a. Ramananda: Ramananda, a disciple of Ramanuja, was born in Allahabad sometime in the 14th century AD. Ramananda was a worshipper of Ram Sita.

He travelled through the holy places of India preaching the cult of Bhakti.

Ramananda used to say that it is not by performing sacrifice or rituals, but by devotion alone that one can realize godhead.

Ramananda preached his doctrine in Hindi language so that it could be easily understood by the unlettered masses. He made no distinction of caste and religion in selecting his disciples.

of his twelve principal disciples, one was a barber, another a cobbler and a third was a Muslim weaver.

b. Kabi: of all the preachers of the Cult of Bhakti the contribution of Kabir and Nanak was the most significant.

Their emphasis on simple living and absence of rituals made strong appeal to the artisans and the cultivators who were their followers.

Kabir, born in 1440 AD. Was brought up by his foster-father who v. as a Muslim weaver. Kabir used to say that since human beings are the creation of God, all are equal to Him.

The distinction between man and man on the basis of caste and religion is, therefore, artificial and meaningless. To him Allah and Rama are but different names.

This is how Kabir sought to bridge the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims.

c. Guru Nanak: Nanak was born in 1469 at Nankana in present-day Lahore (Pakistan). Nanak had travelled from Mecca to Baghdad in search of Truth.

The theme of Nanak’s preaching is total submission to God discarding the complexities of religion. Nanak used to say that there is no separate existence of man as Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist or Jaina.

In fact, Nanak rejected both the Hindu and the Muslim conception of religion and preached a new religious concept in which devotion was of supreme importance.

It must, however, be remembered that Nanak during his lifetime did not organize his followers into a separate religious sect.

It was after his death that Nanak’s disciples emerged as an independent religious community and called themselves ‘Sikhs’, that is disciples of the Guru (the Preceptor).

Guru Nanak is regarded as the first guru of the Sikhs. Incidentally the tenth or the last guru of the Sikhas was Guru Govind Singh.

5. What are the characteristics of Bhakti and Sufi movements?

Ans: In the dark medieval ages, attempts were made to throttle free thinking by the onslaught of fundamentalism. In spite of the upsurge of fundamentalism, liberal pluralistic character of India couldn’t be subjugated for long.

The Bhakti and Sufi movements developed in the fourteenth century, which were openly critical of the then prevalent puritanism and ostentation in the practice of religion and stressed on simplicity of values. They abhorred the then prevalent antagonistic stance between Hinduism and Islam, which was polluting the secular fabric of India and imparted the teaching of one God. Again, the Indian society, with its assimilative character was receptive to those new ideas. Sikhism evolved as a religion in the fifteenth century from the Bhakti cult.

India’s pluralism always surfaced after its battles with narrow mindedness and elements of dissension. In the late eighteenth to mid nineteenth century, when the world was gearing up to great the modern era, India unfortunately, got plunged into the abysmal darkness of ignorance, religious bigotry and evil social customs.

However, soon enlightened visionaries and social reformers like Raja Rammohan Ray, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Henry Derozio, etc, influenced by the teachings imparted by the rational and scientific British education, which opened the windows of their minds, ushered in or at least encouraged many much needed social reforms that reinstalled the liberal character of Indian society.

They were followed by Aurobindo Ghosh, Vivekananda, Tagore, Dayanand Saraswati, etc. Many of these illustrious men were instrumental in the origin and culmination of the Bengal Renaissance, from where many great ideas flowed and eventually spread through Indian society.

6. Short notes on the standard of Mughal architecture in the time of Shah Jahan.

Ans: During the reign of Shah Jahan Mughal architecture reached its supreme exuberance. He chose marble as the chief medium for all his architectural undertakings and clothed and overlaid them with a lavish display of rich and sumptuous ornament. Marble of a pure white texture was procured from the quarries of Makrana in Jodhpur.

The architectural elements also register certain significant changes in the marble phase. “There is predilection for curved lines, in place of the rectangular aspect of the buildings of the previous phase, particularly noticeable in the curved outlines of the roofs and cornices.

The preference for bulbous domes with constricted necks, pillars with tapering outlines and with voluted brackets and foliated basis, foliated shape of arches, all reflect the emphasis on curved lines.” Elaborate and gorgeous ornamentation, pietra dura and cre-ation of exclusive landscape setting are some important features of the buildings of the period.

Shah Jahan, by demolishing some of the earlier buildings, built marble edifices at Agra, such as the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Khas Mahal, the Shish Mahal, the Musamman Burj (or Jasmine Palace), the Anguri Bagh, the Machine Bhawan and the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) which has been described as “one of the purest and most elegant buildings of its class to be found anywhere. Similar construction was provided to the buildings in the interior of the fort of Lahore.

In 1638, Shah Jahan began at Delhi the construction of a new capital city Shahjahanabad, to contain within its perimeter a sumptuous palace fortress for the accommodation of the imperial house-hold and court.

The palace fortress, the Red Fort as it is known because of the red sandstone fabric of its rampart walls, with its halls, palaces, pavilions and gardens was completed in 1648. The Diwan-i-Khas (also known as Shah Mahal) and the Rang Mahal (also called Imtiyaz Mahal or Palace of Distinction) are the two most conspicuous buildings inside the Red Fort. The grand Jami Masjid at Delhi, the largest and the most well known in the whole of India, also forms part of the scheme of the city of Shahjahanabad.

But all other architectural creations of Shah Jahan are nothing as compared to the superb conception of the mausoleum of his wife, Ar-jumand Banu Begum (better known as Mumtaz Mahal) at Agra. It is called the Taj Mahal after the title of the empress. It has been poetically described as a “tender elegy in marble”.

The belief that the Taj owes its design to a Venetian, Geronimo Verroneo, is misleading. The Taj is the crowning glory and culmination of Mughal architecture. It commenced in 1631 and com-pleted sometime around 1653.

7. Why were the buildings of Shah Jahan the mixture of the finest features of Indian and foreign architecture?

Ans: 1. There is lavish use of marble in the buildings constructed during his time. The buildings are abundantly decorated, are graceful and look like jewellery on a large scale. The Taj Mahal, built in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, took more than 20 years to complete.

2. The chief glory of the Tai is its massive dome and the dome minarets linking the platform to the main building. This beautiful marble tomb is one of the wonders of the world.

3. The Moti Masjid at Agra fort is built of flawless marble ShahJahan constructed an entirely new capital at Delhi known as Shahjahanabad. Within the walls, he built the huge Red Fort.

4. The emperor’s celebrated peacock throne stood on a marble platform in the centre of the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas is the most generously ornamented of his buildings.

5. The Jama Masjid built in red sandstone is a dignified and simple structure. Shah Jahan has been called the ‘magnificent builder’. His buildings represent a new composite style of architecture. ture taking firm roots.

8. Why is Shah Jahan’s Age called the Golden Age of the Mughal Empire?

Ans: During the reign of Shah Jahan, there was undisturbed peace within the country. There were no foreign threats and Shah Jahan devoted most of his time in maintaining peace and order in the country. Trade and commerce flourished bringing in lots of wealth. The land was fertile and revenue flowed into the treasury.

Shah Jahan carried out many works of public welfare. Roads, canals, bridges, sarais, etc., were constructed for the welfare of the people. Similarly, during the famine and plague he did a lot to relieve the people of their sufferings.

Shah Jahan had a natural love for magnificence, which was reflected in the buildings that he constructed. His reign is, in fact, called the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture. One of the most important buildings constructed by him is the Taj Mahal, which was built in the memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

The Moi Masjid is also constructed in the Agra fort. It is made of white marble. The Musamman Burj also of white marble is the place in the fort from where Shah Jahan used to view the Taj during his last days when he was made a prisoner by his son Aurangzeb.

Shah Jahan built his father’s mausoleum at Lahore (now in Pakistan).

After his beloved wife’s death, Shah Jahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi. He founded a new city called Shahjahanabad. 

He constructed the Red Fort. It is built of red sandstone. Many important buildings like Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam and Rang Mahal are inside the fort. The famous peacock throne was kept here. The throne was studded with precious stones. 

9. The Salient Features of the Architecture during the Sultanate Period.

Ans: The salient features of the architecture during the Sultanate period may be estimated under these heads as given below:

A Mixture of Indian and Iranian Styles: The first salient features of the Delhi Sultanate Architecture were that from the very beginning there was the mixing of Indian and Iranian styles in it. Though the Turkish Sultans had brought with them the architectural styles of Persia and Central Asia, they had not brought with them the builders.

The first need of the new rulers was residential houses and prayer mosques. So with the help of Indian Artisans they built these buildings in the least time. The initial buildings of the Turks show that Indian style was adopted in them.

It was due to two reasons:

(a) Firstly, the builders were Indians, and

(b) Secondly, they were constructed out of the temples broken during the war.

A good example of such type of architecture is The Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque of Delhi, (ii) Pointed Arch; Narrow and High Towers and Use of Domes: A look at the towers, palaces, mosques, forts and tombs of this period shows that during this period generally pointed Arches like the English alphabet ‘B’ in Reverse Shape and very high towers were used.

The pointed arches did not rest on any support but the stones were arranged in a slanting way to give it that shape. In many tombs semi-circular domes were made. A good example of such a type of architecture is ‘Tomb of Ghiyasuddin and IQutub Minar. Both the constructions were constructed during the Sultanate period. ‘Qutub Minar’ is a good example of the tower getting narrower as it attains height.

New Style Places of Worship: The Turkish Sultans started a new style of constructing places of worship by desecrating the temples and constructing mosques out of them. These were a new thing for India because none of the preceding invaders had before them resorted to this practice of breaking the worshipping places of other religions and converting them into their own. The Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi was constructed over a broken temple.

The mosque in Ajmer called Adai-din-ka-Jhonpada’ was con. structured either after breaking a “Buddhist monastery” or a “Hindu Temple’. These places of worship were neither decorated with statues nor with human paintings. They had a huge chamber, Tombs of New Style: Tombs were constructed during the Sultanate period often in memory of Sultans, big Amirs and many Sufi saints.

The size and design of these tombs were not alike, e.g. during the time of Firoz Tughlaq Octagonal or for his Wazir-Khan-i-Jahan Telangani, eight-doored tombs were constructed. Sayyids and Lodhis also constructed octagonal tombs, Many Types of Stones and Good Quality Lime were used: During the Sultanate period many coloured stones like red, light black, yellow and white marbles were used.

During this period huge buildings were constructed without supporting pillars and to keep them together very good quality of lime was used, Scientific Constructions: During the Sultanate period buildings were constructed in a scientific manner-a thing which they had learned from the Arabs. In fact this scientific building was not an original invention of Arabs either.

They had adopted it from the Byzantine Empire. They were the first in India to use large scale arches and domes in their buildings. Before their advent the style of building arch was to narrow the distance between all the stones till it became narrow enough to keep just a stone at the top. The Turkish Sultans used both Stone and Beam to build Dome and arch.

By this method they were able to construct High Square or round domes which made the buildings look grand and huge.

New Style of Decorating the Buildings: During the Sultanate Period human and animal figures were not used to decorate the buildings but rather various types of flowers and leaves, geometrical designs or the Quranic Ayats were used for this purpose. This method of embellishing the buildings is called the Arabic Method but with the passing of time the Delhi Sultans adopted certain Hindu elements of embellishment also like the lotus, swastik, creepers, bells, kalast etc.

Short Notes:

(a) Art and Crafts during The Gupta Period.

Ans: (1) The Pre-Gupta and Gupta period was the most flourishing period in the history of India.

(2) We do not come across so many kinds of artisans in the earlier texts as are mentioned in the writings of this period.

(3) The Digha Nikaya, which belongs to pre-Mauryan times, mentioned about two dozens occupations, but the Milinda Panho, which belong to this period, enumerates as many as 75 occupations.

(4) Eight crafts were associated with the working of gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron, and precious stones or jewels.

(5) Technological knowledge about the work of iron has made great progress. Iron artifacts have been discovered in greater numbers in Kushan and Satavahana layers at various excavated sites.

(6) But the Telangana region of Andhra seems to have made special progress in iron manufacture.

(7) Cloth making, silk weaving, and the making of arms and luxury articles also made progress. Mathura was a great center for the manufacture of a special type of cloth which was called sataka.

(8) The manufacture of oil increased because of the use of the oil wheel.

(9) The inscriptions of the period mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewelers, sculptors, smiths, and perfumers as constructors of caves and donors of pillars, tablets, etc. to the Buddhist monks.

(10) Coin-minting was an important craft, and the period is noted for numerous types of coins made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

(11) The craftsman also made fake Roman coins. Various coin-molds belonging to the period have been found both in north India and in Deccan.

(12) A coin-mold from the Satavahana level shows that through it half a dozen coins could be turned out at a time.

(13) These urban handicrafts were supplemented by the manu-facture of beautiful pieces of terracotta, which are found in profuse qualities.

(14) Terracottas were meant mostly for use by the upper classes in towns. With the decline of town in Gupta, and especially in post Gupta times, such terracottas almost went out of fashion,

(15) The Satavahana inscriptions show that they were in the west. ern India at that time guilds that acted as banks.

(16) One inscription states that an oil presser guila (Tailikanikaya) received two amounts of money.

(b) Agriculture and Agrarian Structure during The Gupta Period?

Ans: (1) Agriculture thrived during the Gupta period as a result of the establishment of irrigation works.

(2) Aside from the state and individual cultivators, Brahmins, Buddhists, and Jain sanghas cultivated wastelands when they were given to them as religious endowments.

(3) Cultivators were asked to protect their crops from damage, and those who damaged the crops were punished. Crops and fields were also fenced.

(4) Rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane, and oil seeds were among the crops grown during the Gupta era.

(5) According to Kalidasa, the south was famous for pepper and cardamom. Varahamihira provides detailed advice on fruit tree plant-ing.

(6) According to the Paharpur copper plate inscription, the king was the sole owner of the land. Even when he granted land, he reserved his rights to it.

(7) The record keepers and influential men in the area marked out and measured the location and boundaries of individual plots.

(8) According to the Paharpur plates, an officer known as Gustapala kept records of all land transactions in the district, and the village accountant kept records of land in the village.

(c) Art and Architecture of India During the Medieval Period.

Ans: The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian architecture. They brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India.

The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. During the Mughal period, the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built.

Main features of the Islamic architecture:

The distinctive features of the Islamic architecture are seen in the standardized architecture of the mosque and the mausoleum. The mosque consisted of a large, rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. There were many minarets in some mosques.

The arch in the gateway and other places was another characteristic feature. The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture white The Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. The two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.

Architecture under the Sultanate:

The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. 

The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar are the most renowned monuments of India. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and built the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the building.

The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive. The regional kingdoms in Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmir developed their own distinctive styles of architecture.

The Mughal Architecture:

The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals. Babur and Humayun erected a number of buildings with the help of Persian architects but those were not very impressive.

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first important building of Akbar’s reign is Humayun’s tomb at Delhi. The two significant features of the Mughal architecture are the large gateways and the placements of the building in the midst of a large park are evident here. Akbar also built forts at Agra and Lahore.

The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in a variety of styles. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 metres high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti is built in white marble. The palace of lodha Bai was built in the style of ancient Indian architecture.

During the reign of Jahangir, the mausoleum of Akbar was constructed at Sikandra which was inspired by the Buddhist viharas, After a long time, the minor became architecturally significant here. Shah Jahan was the greatest of the Mughal builders. His reign marks the highest development of Mughal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country were built during his time.

The list of Shah Jahan’s buildings is very large. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan’s buildings is the Taj Mahal built in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Delhi, The new style of architecture had a significant influence on the construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of the Rajputs during this period,

1. What was Akbar’s contribution towards Mughal architecture?

Ans: The Mughal architectural style began as a definite move. ment under Akbar. The mausoleum of Humayun in Delhi heralded the new movement. In spirit the structure of Humayun’s tomb stands as an example of synthesis of two great building traditions of Asia, namely the Persian and (he Indian; and the full efflorescence of Mughal architecture depended on this happy synthesis.

But Akbar’s policy and ideas with regard to architecture were fundamentally different from those reflected in the tomb of Humayun. He wanted to create a style with an independent Indian character.

Akbar was the founder of several fortified royal residences, each of which served as his capital during the period. The first of such royal residences to be erected was the fortress palace at Agra which was completed in eight years (1565-73). 

Abul Fazl writes in the Ain-i-Akbari: “Within the fort the emperor built upwards of five hundred edifices of red stone in the fine styles of Bengal and Gujarat.” Thus was developed a unified and national style of building art in which each distinc-tive tradition, imperial as well as provincial, played an important part.

Only a few of Akbar’s numerous buildings at Agra have survived. Among those that have escaped destruction, men-tion may be made of two palace buildings known as Akbari Mahal and Jahangiri Mahal.

In general character, the fort at Agra greatly resembles the for-tress at Gwalior. The forts that Akbar built almost at the same time at Lahore and Allahabad appear to have been executed on the same grand scale.

Akbar’s most ambitious and magnificent architectural undertaking, however, was the new capital city that he built on the ridge at Sikri, 36 km west of Agra. To commemorate Akbar’s con-quest of Gujarat in 1572, the city was subsequently named Fatehpur (city of victory).

The monuments of Fatehpur Sikri may be divided into two classes, one religious and the other secular. The secular monuments, such as palaces, office buildings, sarais, pavilions, etc. are by far the most numerous and they illustrate various designs and shapes. Undoubtedly the most impressive creation of this new capital city is the grand Jami Masjid which has been described as the glory of Fatehpur Sikri.

The southern entrance to the Jami Masjid is an impressive gateway known as the Buland Darwaza. The total height of this gateway, including that of the supporting terrace, is 53 metres.

Like most other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive gateway is of red sandstone which is relieved by carving and discreet inlaying of white marble that gives an emphasis to the bold lineaments of the composition. With its immense bull and towering height the Buland Darwaza presents an imposing appear-ance from whatever angle it is viewed.

Two other additions were later made within the mosque enclosure. One of these is the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti, the patron saint of Sikri.lt is a small, square and attractive building in marble.

The pierced screens of the corridor of this tomb are very finely worked. Close by and to the east of the tomb of the Shaikh stands the mausoleum of Islam Khan, a grandson of the saint, built in 1612.

At Fatehpur Sikri the civil and residential structures are by far the most numerous. They are singularly interesting as elegant types of office and domestic buildings of the period. In the former class mention may be made of at least two fine structures, one known as the Daftar Khana or the office and the other Diwan-i-khas or the hall of private audience. In the latter, the arrangement of a hanging throne platform connected with hanging galleries by radiating passages represent a novel and original conception. 

of the palaces and other residential buildings in the city mentioned may be made of Jodha Bai’s palace, houses of Birbal, and Mariam and the Panch Mahal, which is a fantastic five-storeyed pillared structure.

The design of this building has been derived from old assembly halls of India. In the buildings of Akbar there is a predominance of indigenous designs, motifs and practices. His architectural style, built up on the traditions of the soil, was a truly national art movement.

3. What were the Developments of Architecture during the Sultanate Period?

Ans: The Developments of Architecture during the Sultanate Period:

1. Slave Dynasty:

The founder of the so-called Slave Dynasty was Qutubuddin Aibak. Some of the most important Architectural examples of Slave Dynasty are as under:  Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:

Qutubuddin Aibak constructed the First Mosque called ‘Quwaat-ul-Islam Mosque”. Some scholars say that its construction started in 1195 A.D. and was finished in 1199 A.D. Some scholars also say that this mosque was constructed by desecrating a Vishnu Temple whereas the other scholars hold that it was constructed with hostility at the cite of Kila Rai Pithora. At this site many temples were being constructed before the coming of the Turks.

After their victory in the battle, the Turks with the help of the existing building material and builders constructed a pulpit made for the temple into a courtyard surrounded by the wall. The greatest speciality of this mosque is its great Maksura and connected Kibla Diwan. To decorate “The Maksura” inlays work in the form of straight lines or geometrical designs and flowers and leaves are used. In this building the strength and beauty of Islamic architecture are manifest.

It consisted of an open quadrangle enclosed by colonnades of which the western one constitutes the prayer chamber. Seen from within or without, the building, as originally designed, presented an essentially Hindu Appearance. Half of the plinth on which it stood was actually the basement of a Hindu temple and the rest of the structure was composed of materials from the 27 shrines of the Hindus.

In 1198, an arched screen of Muhammadan design was thrown across the whole front of the prayer chamber. It is pointed out that the screen is not an architectural success. It is obviously an after-thought and not an integral and organic part of the structure.

In 1230 A.D., Iltutmish more than doubled the area of the mosque by throwing out wings to the prayer chamber and screen and by adding an outer court. The new work was fundamentally Islamic in character and obviously designed, if not executed, by Muslim Crafts-men. Ala-ud-Din Khalji also enlarged the mosque.

Qutub Minar:

Aibak began the construction of the second important building called Qutub Minar. According to some historians, this tower was being constructed basically to summon all the Muslims for the purpose of Namaz but other historians hold that it was connected with Turkish Achievements of victory.

They said that it was constructed to make their victory famous and the memory immortal like those at Chittor and Mandu. The credit for completing this building goes to Iltutmish. Only a portion of the first storey was constructed by Qutub-ud-Din Aibaq and the rest was completed by Iltutmish.

The tower was originally 71.4 metres or 225 feet high. Some historians hold that Iltutmish constructed this tower in the memory of popular Sufi saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. The circumference at the base is 15 meters, reduced by just 3 metres at the top. In the time of Firuj Shah Tughlaq the Minar was struck by lightning and the fourth storey was dismantled and replaced by two smaller ones.

Its height was also raised to 91.4 meters or 234 feet. In 1503, the storey was repaired. At a small distance very beautiful carving is done on stones. At the end of each storey there is an enclosed space for being able to go round it. There are five storeys in all.

There is a balcony which makes each storey link separate from the other whereas inside the tower there is no special roof for each storey. It has been constructed of red sandstones totally. Percy Brown has praised its art highly. Dr. Nandlal Chatterji has written that the Qutub Minar has been constructed in Muslim style. Under the supervision of Muslim builders the Hindu Artisans have made it in such a way that some characteristics of Hindu Style are also visible in it.

On the strength of certain short Nagari records in the interior, attempts have been made to prove that the Minar was originally Hindu and Muslims merely reserved the outer surface. This view is rejected by Sir John Marshall who points out that the whole concep-tion of the Minar and almost every detail of its construction and decoration is essentially Islamic. While towers of this kind were unknown to the Indians, those were familiar to the Muslims.

The calligraphic inscriptions and the elaborate stalactite corbel. ling beneath the balconies also point out to its Muslim origin.

Fergusson was of the view that the Qutub Minar was the most perfect example of a tower known to exist anywhere. According to Sir John Marshall, “Nothing certainly could be more imposing or more fittingly symbolic of Muslim power than this stern and stupen-dous fabric; nor could anything be more exquisite than its rich but restrained carvings.”

The Tomb of Iltutmish:

This tomb is unpretentious in its form and dimensions. It is a simple square chamber. However, its decoration is very elaborate. Almost the entire surface of the walls within is covered from floor to ceiling with Quranic texts.

The Sultan Ghar:

This was built in 1231-32 A.D. Its plan is not like The Tomb of Iltutmish or of any other tomb in India. It stands in the middle of a square fortress-like enclosure with round turrets at the four corners. Most of the enclosure is of grey granite, but the mosque and en-trance portico and the exterior facing of the tomb are of white marble.

The Arhai-Din-Ka-Jhompra:

This was built at Ajmer in 1200 AD. by Qutb-ud-Din Aibaq Probably it was also constructed by breaking a Buddhist monastery. Later on, Iltutmish beautified it with a screen. According to Sir John Marshall it is so called because it was really built in 2’a days.

But according to Persy Brown here near a hut there used to be a fair for 2’a days that is why it is so called. The view that the building was originally built within two and a half days is not accepted and it is suggested that it might have taken two and a half years to construct it.

In style and construction, it closely resembles the Quwwat-ul-Islam at Delhi, but its area is more than double and several parts of it are more spacious and dignified. The architect at Ajmer has suc-ceeded in creating a hall of really solemn beauty. However, it does not possess the delicate subtle beauty of Quwwat-ul-Islam. Its pil-Jars, roof, stones and dome all show the use of Islamic Architectural Style. 

The Tomb of Balban:

This is a simple structure comprising a square domed chamber, 38 inches across, with an arched entrance in each of its sites and a smaller chamber to the East and West.

Unfortunately, every trace of decoration has disappeared from the tomb and what is left is a mere shell. However, the presence of arches built on scientific principles gives it great importance. It is a symbol of a reaction against the Hindu influences of the Hindu Artisans.

Turkish style Arches in India:

2. Khilji Dynasty:

Allauddin Khilji had a great love for architecture. It is said that he got buildings constructed right from the time of his accusation to his death.

Some of the important constructions of his period are as under:

Siri Village: Allauddin Khilji got a new city constructed in Siri village, a few kilometres from Qutub Minar, in about 1303. He made it his capital Siri was constructed in order to protect the population of the suburbs of Delhi. Unfortunately nothing is left of this city now,

Only some fragments of the encircling walls of the city are now left. Zia-ud-Din Barani has called this city as Nava Nagar and has vividly described many of its buildings. Even the walls of the city throw some light on the military architecture of that period. Allauddin Khilji got the Ouwwat-ul-Islam Mosque extended and built a grand doorway at its entrance.

It is said that Allauddin Khilji wanted to build another tower higher than the Qutub Minar but he died before its completion. 

Alai Darwaza: Allauddin Khilji got another gateway constructed near Qutub Minar and Alai Darwaza. According to Sir John Marshal, “Allai Darwaza is an invaluable treasure of Islamic architecture.” It is built on a raised platform on which beautiful creepers etc. are carved.

On it there is a beautiful combination of red sandstone and marble. The engravings from the Quran are beautifully engraved on it with unique balance in its arches. On top of it is a dome on which the scientific method was rightly used for the first time. In spite of mutilations, the Alai Darwaza is one of the most treasured gems of Islamic Architecture. Like the tomb of Iltutmish, it consisted of a square hall roofed by a single dome, with arched entrances piercing each of its four walls. It is of red sandstone relieved by white marble.

It is freely adorned with bands of Quranic texts. In every feature, whether structural or decorative, the Alai Darwaza is incompa-rably better. Seen at a distance, its well-proportioned lineaments are accentuated by the alternating red and white colour of its walls. An added dignity is given by the high plinth on which it stands. If seen from very near, the harmony of forms and colour is increased by the wealth of lace-like decorations on its walls.

According to Sir John Marshall, “The key-notes of this building are its perfect symmetry and the structural propriety of its parts. Whoever the architect may have been, he was a man of irreproachable taste who was not satisfied merely with repeating traditional ideas but who set himself to think out and perfect every detail of his creation.”

Hauz Khas:

It is said that Allauddin Khilji got a tank constructed near Siri village which was called a Hauz-Khas or Hauz-i-Alai. This tank was spread over an area of more than seventy acres of land and was surrounded by a wall made of stone and lime mixture.

Probably later on it was filled with mud and was cleaned by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1354 A.D. On the basis of memoirs of Taimur it can be said that this tank supplied water to the city throughout the year, Jamaat Khana Mosque: Allauddin Khilji also constructed Jamat Khana Mosque near the Dargah of Nizamuddin Aulia.

This is in the village of Malikpur near Old Delhi. Nasiruddin Mahmud, eldest son of Iltutmish, was buried here. It was constructed entirely in Islamic style. The bonds supporting the arch are inscribed with lotus (flower) and Quranic Siats.

The Jamaat Khana Masjid is the earliest example in India of a mosque built wholly in accordance with Muslim ideas and with materials especially quarried for the purpose. It is made of red sandstone and consists of three chambers. Originally, the building was in-tended not as a mosque but as a tomb for Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din and consisted of the central chamber only. The side wings were added in the beginning of the Tughlaq Dynasty when it was converted into a mosque.

Tughlaq Dynasty:

There was a change in the art of architecture under the Tughlaq Period. Lavish display of ornaments and richness of details gave place to puritanical simplicity. This change was due partly to the urgent need for economy and partly to the general revulsion of feeling against the excesses of the Khalji Regime.

The extreme religious bigotry of the Tughlaq Period was also responsible for the change. There was also a decay of skilled crafts-manship during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq on account of the wholesale shifting of the population of Delhi to Daulatabad.

Many buildings were constructed during The Tughlaq Period. In these buildings there was more emphasis on simplicity and vastness in place of decoration of the buildings of the Khilji Period. Accord-ing to historians the basic cause was the financial difficulties of the Tughlaq Sultans as also a feeling of resentment among the people against the heavy expenditure incurred by Khiljis. Some important constructions of Tughlaq Dynasty are as under.

Short Notes:

(a) Architecture and art of Gupta Empire.

Ans: The era between the centuries of 4th and 6th, the CE (Common Era) is recognised as the Golden era of India due to the considerable achievements of the country in the fields of philosophy, science, and art. On the concept of Gupta age architecture, it includes both sculptural temples as well as the temples of rock-cut caves. Guptas established the temples of Buddhist rock-cut at Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, and Ajanta, Maharashtra.

In the Gupta period, the Guptas established Hindu structural temples for the first time in India.

The temples of Gupta era are:

(i) Varaha and Vishnu temples in Madhya Pradesh.

(ii) The temple of Kankali Devi at Jabalpur.

(iii) The temple of Mahadeva and Parvati at Nachna Kuthara.

(iv) The temple of Dasavatara at Deogarh.

The art of Gupta era primarily includes paintings and the paint-ings are found in Bagh cave as well as Ajanta caves. The Hindu religion before the Gupta era used to be recognised as “Vedic religion”.

The iron pillar was established by Chandragupta II in Delhi. The iron pillar has effective inscriptions that were implanted from the era of Guptas. The inscriptions of the iron pillar in Delhi define Chandra’s name that is effectively recognised as Chandragupta, the Gupta ruler.

The Gupta Empire can be described as the fourth largest entity of politics who have ruled appropriately in India. Guptas followed decentralized administration. The Gupta age of architecture brought effective knowledge as well as architects in terms of making efficient and effective structures and temples. The era of Guptas has an effective and positive impact on Hindu religion in India.

Majority of temples in the era of Guptas were craving and represented Gods and goddesses, primarily avatars of Lingams and Vishnu. The era has assisted to develop knowledge among people in the field of art and architecture. Guptas have developed effective advancements in philosophy, religion, astronomy, logic, dialectics, art, engineering. as well as science. There is an effective contribution of the Gupta Empire in the religion of Hinduism as well as in the development of art and architecture in India.

1. Describe the achievements of the Gupta period in the fields of science, art and architecture.

Ans: The Golden Age means a period in which remarkable progress is made in art, architecture, literature, astronomy and medicine.

Science:

1. Aryabhatta was the greatest astronomer and mathematician of the time. He was the first to measure the radius of the Earth, explain the shape of the Earth and also the formation of solar and lunar eclipses. He wrote the famous Surya Siddhanta and Aryabhatiyam.

2. Varamihira was another great astronomer who introduced Romaka Siddhanta which became the basis for the lunar calendar. He also wrote the famous Brihatsamhita, Brihatjataka and Pancha Siddhanta.

3. Brahmagupta preceded Newton in founding the Theory of Gravitation. He wrote Brahmasputa Siddhanta and Kandakadyaka.

Medicine:

1. Dhanwantary perfected Charaka Samhita (Charaka belonged to the age of Kaniska), a text on ayurvedic medicine and surgery.

2. Navaneetaka wrote Navaneetakam on Ayurvedic medicine.

3. Palakapya wrote Hastya Ayurveda that dealt with Veterinary diseases.

Literature:

1. All the literary forms (Kavya, Drama, Short Stories, Satire and Dictionary Composition) reached their perfection under the Guptas.

2. Amarasimha wrote Amarakosa, which was the 1st dictionary in Sanskrit.

3. Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra stories, the first short sto-ries collection in Indian History.

4. Chandragomin wrote Chandra Vyakarna which is still popular in Bengal.

5. A Jain monk Vimla wrote Jain Ramayan, according to which Sita was the sister of Rama.

Sculpture, Painting and Architecture:

1. In architecture, the Guptas were the first to start the construction of temples in North India. The Guptas introduced the Nagara style of architecture. The Gupta temples are found at Gava, Varanasi Paharpur, Mathura and Deogarh.

2. In the field of sculpture, the royal Boar (Rajavaraha) was the best specimen of Gupta sculpture found in Gupta temples. Guptas continued the Ajanta cave painting tradition at Bagh caves (M.P).

Short Notes:

(a) Gupta Empires Science and Technology.

Ans: (1) In the field of mathematics, astronomy and medicine, India had much advanced knowledge during this period in compari. son to any other country in the world.

(2) These developments in science and technology in India were first borrowed by Arabs and then by the western world

(3) In mathematics, Aryabhata wrote the book Aryabhattiya, in Kusumpura (Pataliputra) when he was 23 years old.

(4) Aryabhattiya is divided into four parts. As regards geometry, Aryabhata considers among other topics, an area of a triangle, the theorem on similarity of triangles, the area of circle and the theorem relating to rectangles contained by the segments.

(5) One of the most important features of Aryabhata’s mathematical system is his unique system of notation. It is based on the decimal place-value system, unknown to other ancient people, but now in use throughout the civilized world.

(6) The other famous mathematician was Brahmagupta who wrote Brahmsiddhanta in c. A.D. 628

(7) His other well known work was Khandakhadya probably composed in A.D. 665.

(8) He developed rules for operating with negative qualities and with zero. He began to apply Algebra to astronomical problems.

(b) Gupta Empires Astronomy.

Ans: (1) Astronomy and Astrology are included in ancient India in a term known as

(2) Varahamihira, who flourished in the court of Chandragupta II, has preserved in his Panchasiddhantika, written in A.D. 505, the accounts office astronomical works which were evidently regarded as authority in his own time.

(3) These five works or siddhantas are known as Paitamaha, Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha and Surya. The Surya Siddhanta is the most important and complete work on the astronomy of the period.

(4) In the field of astrology, we are also much indebted to Varahamihira.

(5) He has, in his encyclopaedic work Brihat Samhita, preserved a considerable amount of ancient knowledge on the subject.

(6) His Brihatsamhita, besides being the most important textbook on natural astrology, is a veritable compendium of Ancient Indian learning in the field of science.

(7) As in mathematics, and so too in astronomy, Aryabhata was an outstanding scholar of the Gupta age. His most original contribution was howe’!:er, that the eclipses were not the work of Rahu, as believed by some astrologers, but caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon, therefore, asserting the movement of earth on its own axis around the sun, as was known in Vedic times

(8) He discovered an accurate formula to measure the decrease or increase in the duration of two consecutive days.

1. The Growth Of Art And Architecture During Mughal Rule.

Ans: It goes without saying that the Mughals were great builders. Many of the Mughal buildings have come down to us. Fergusson was of the opinion that Mughal architecture was of foreign origin. However Aurangzeb because of his puritan ideas did not extend his patronage to fine arts. Indian architecture entered upon a new phase with the advent of the Mughals. The art and architecture of the period after 1526 reveal a happy blending of Muslim and Hindu art traditions.

Mughal emperors erected buildings of supreme beauty and gran-deur. Forgusson has opined that the Mughal style of architecture was foreign in origin. But this view has been criticised by Havell. Sir John Marshall has expressed the view that India is a vast country with manifold diversities.

So it cannot be said that architecture in India “ever conformed to a single universal type. Much depended upon the personal tastes of the emperors.” Persian influence over Indian art increased after the establishment of the Mughal rule and this continued till the end of the reign of the great Mughal Akbar. But during the reign period of his successors Indian architecture and paintings became essentially Indian.

The Mughal architecture was more sumptuous and decorative than that of the Sultanate period.

Babur did not like the buildings which he found at Delhi and Agra. He did not appreciate the Indian art and skill. So he thought of constructing new buildings.

It is said that he invited from Constantinople the pupils of the famous Albanian architect sinan to work on Mosques and other monuments in India. Babur employed Indian stone masons in the construction of these buildings.

In his memories he writes, 600 men worked daily on his buildings at Agra and nearly 15,000 men were employed daily on his buildings at Sikri, Biyana, Dholpur, Gwalior and Kiul. Most of the buildings of Babur have been destroyed but two have survived to this day.

The first one is a Mosque in the Kabuli Bag at Panipat and the other is Jamimaasjid at Sambhal. The reign of Humayun was a period of anxiety and trouble. He had no time to devote himself to artistic activities.

A mosque of the time of Humayun still exists in a dilapidated condition at Fatehabad in the Hissar Firuza district of Haryana. Another Mosque is still seen at Agra. The rulers of the Sur dynasty were great builders.

The buildings of Sher Shah are fine examples of medieval archi. tecture. Sher Shah built massive forts at Rolitas and Mankot.

The two most remarkable buildings of his time are the Purana Qila near Delhi and his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. “The Mosque reflects Persian in its recessed portals, small minarets round the dome and in its fine masonry, though in other respects it is India.

“Sher Shah’s Mausoleum is located on a high plinth in the middle of a tank. This building is famous for its design and dignity and reveals a happy blending of Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas.

The reign of Akbar witnessed a remarkable growth of architec-ture. Akbar evinced great interest in the construction of buildings. Abul Fazal alias 10 the fact that Akbar regulated the prices of the building materials and fixed the wages of the craftsmen. The spirit of tolerance guided all his activities.

Abul Fazal has remarked that his sovereign, “planned splend edifices and dressed the work of his mind and heart in the garment of stone and clay.” He adopted both Persian and Hindu styles of architecture. He introduced in the buildings the decorative features of Hindu and Jain temples.

The fact that he favoured the Hindu style is known from his palace in the Agra fort which is called the Jahangiri Mahal. The earliest building of his reign is the tomb of Humayun. This building is more Persian than Indian in design and its “principal novelty lies in its four towers at the four angles of the main building and the narrow-necked features which reached their high water-mark during Shahjahan’s reign.”

However the ground plan of the tomb is Indian and the free use of white marble in the outward appearance of the edifice is Indian. Forts, fortnesses and places at Agra and Lahore are the remarkable structures of the reign of Akbar. The Agra fort is a massive structure of red sandstones.

But the most notable buildings of Akbar’s reign are his palaces at Fatehpur Sikri. In 1569 Akbar laid the foundation of his new city on the summit of a hill near Sikni in memory of Shaikh Salim Chisti.

The most magnificent buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s Palace. Diwan-e-Am or the emperor’s public audience, the Punch Mahal, Jami Masjid, the Buland Darwaza and the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti.

Fergusson called the Jami Masjid as “a romance of stone.” The Buland Darwaza or massive archway was constructed to commemo-rate the conquest of Gujarat. This gateway was built of marble and red sandstone.

Its height is 176 feet and it is the highest gateway in India. Two other remarkable buildings of this period are the palace of forty Pillars at Allahabad and the Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra near Agra.

The design of this massive Mausoleum was inspired by the Busdhist Viharas of India. This building was constructed during the period from 1605 to 1613. Another notable building of the regis period of Jahangir is the tomb of Itimad-ud daulah at Agra.

It was built by empress Nurjahan. It is wholly built of marble This building is unique for the in laving of precious stones of different colours in a most delicate manner, “It conveys the impression of a rich article of jewellery magnified into architecture.” Another important building is the tomb of Jahangir on the opposite bank of the river Ravi at Shahdara near Lahore.

Shahjahan was the most magnificent builder among the Mughal rulers. He carried the decorative art to perfection and made it large. scale use marbles in the construction of the buildings. He found the Mughal cities of sandstones and he left them of marbles. He constructed a number of buildings within the fort of Agra Established the new city of Shahjahanabad on the right bank of the Jumna.

The notable buildings of Shahjahan inside the Agra fort one, the Mussaman But and the Pearl Mosque other Moti Masjid. The Moti Masjid represents the architectural zenith of the time of Shahjahan and the beauty of the structure lies in its purity and simplicity.

The Principal buildings of the reign of Shahjahan are the Rang Mahal, Hira Mahal, Moti Mahal, the Diwan-i-Am and the Diwan-i-Khas within the Red fort in Delhi. The Diwan-i-Khah is more singularly ornamented than any building of Shahjahan.

The Jam-i-Masjid near the Red fort is also an impressive and dignified building. It was built to “attract the eyes of the faithful from a far and proclaim the glory of Islam.

The interior of this Mosque is austere and simple. The Jam-i Masjid is the largest Mosque in India. The construction of this mosque was completed in years at a cost of ten lakhs of rupees.

The most important building of Shahjahan’s period is the Taj Mahal, the Mausoleum which he erected over the grave of his beloved wife Anjuman Bunu teller known as Mumtaz Mahal. The queen died in 1630.

The master architect of this building was Ustad Isha. A sum of 50 Lakhs of rupees was spent in the construction of this building which is rightly regarded as one of the wonders of the world for its beauty and magnificence.

Another celebrated work of art of this period was the Peacock throne. The throne was in the form of a cot bedstead on golden legs. The enamelled canopy was supported by twelve emerald pillars, each of which bore two peacocks encrusted with gems.

A tree covered with diamonds, emeralds, rupees and pearls stood between the binds of each pair.” The throne was 3 yards in length, 2 yards in width and 5 yards in height.

Jewels worth 86 lakhs of rupees and one lakh totals of gold valued at 14 lakhs of rupees were utilised in the making of this throne. In 1739 Nadir Shah of Persian invaded – India and carried away this famous throne.

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb did not encourage the growth of architecture because he was a Puritan. The little marble Mosque in the fort of Delhi, the Mosque at Varanasi which was built on the ruins of the temple of Viswanath and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore are the notable buildings of the reign period of Aurangzeb. These buildings are the latest specimen of Mughal style of architecture.

2. Explain the development of the Bhakti Movement.

Or

Explain the basic principles or main ideas of the Bhakti community.

Or

Discuss the development of the Bhakti Movement. Also, discuss the basic principles or views of the Bhakti communities.

Ans: The Bhakti Movement developed in South India from the 7th to 12th century. During this period, the Shaiva Nayanars and Vaishnava Alvars stated that the way to salvation or Muktilays in devotion to God. They wrote in the local languages. They exhorted the people to forget differences on the basis of caste. They advised them to get closer to each other. One thing that needs to be men-tioned here is that the Bhakti Movement of South India reached North India after a gap of many years.

The reason for this long time was that the languages of the South did not prove helpful in the spread of this movement in the North. Here, only Sanskrit could be a popular language. Whatever may be the reason for the late arrival of the Bhakti Movement in the North, one thing is quite clear that many saints and thinkers brought the Bhakti philosophy to North India.

Basic Tenets or Principles: The following are the basic principles of the Bhakti Movement:

1. Oneness of God: The propounders of the Bhakti Movement stated that God is one. He cannot be divided. Ram or Rahim are the two names of one God. So we should worship one God.

2. Importance of God: According to initiators of the Bhakti Movement, God is all-pervasive and almighty. He is present in every particle of the world.

3. True Devotion: The propounders of the Bhakti Movement emphasized true devotion to God. They stated that God becomes happy with true devotion and not external show. The true devotion to God leads to Mukti or salvation. So the people should give up religious malpractices.

4. Disbelief in Caste System: All the preachers of the Bhakti Movement opposed the caste system. They stated that for God, no one was big or small. God treats all alike… He considers everyone as equal. So the caste-based discriminations are futile.

5. Greatness of Guru: The saint-preachers have given the supreme place to the guru. They believed that God cannot be achieved without a true guru.

6. Opposition to Ide Worship: The protagonists of the Bhakti Movement severely opposed the idol-worship. Kabir and Namdev played a significant role in this task. Even Guru Nanak Dev stated that only the fools worship idols of stone.

7. No Belief in Rituals: The initiators of the Bhakti Movement repudiated false customs and futile rituals. They stated that nobody could become a saint by wearing saffron clothes or getting his head shaved. The true devotion to God lies in the pure mind.

3. Discuss in brief the famous saints of the Bhakti Movement.

Ans: During the Middle Ages, many saints were born in different parts of India. A few important saints of this time were Ramanuja, Ramananda, Kabir, Ravidas, Guru Nanak Dev Ji, and Chaitanya.

Ramanuja: Saint Ramanuja was a great preacher of the Vaishnava sect in South India. He was a Tamil Brahmana who advised all his disciples to worship Vishnu. He opposed the caste system.

Ramananda: He was born in a Brahmana family in Prayag (Allahabad). He was a devotee of Ram in the 14th century. He was a follower of Raghavanand. He advised all his disciples to worship both Rama and Sita. He bitterly criticized the blind faiths prevalent in Indian society. He was the first Bhakat-reformer who admitted the women in his sect.

Kabir: He was the main preacher of the Bhakti Movement. He was born in a poor family of weavers. So he could not get a high education and adopted the profession of a weaver. He was a follower of Ramananda. He gave the message that God is one and all should live in mutual fraternity. He criticized idol-worship, caste-system, child marriage, and the practice of Sati. The couplets of Kabir have been included in Shri Guru Granth Sahib.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji: Guru Nanak Dev Ji was a prominent saint of the Bhakti Movement. He advised all his followers to worship one God. He emphasized Naam-Smaran (remembering the name of God). He stated that God is formless, all pervasive, and all-power-ful.

Namdev: He was the most famous saint of Maharashtra. He gave the message to all his disciples that God is formless, all-per-vasive, and all-powerful. He inspired everyone to lead a pious life. He strongly opposed the caste system, idol worship, pilgrimage, vajna, sacrifice, and fast. His hymns have been incorporated in Shri Guru Granth Sahib.

Guru Ravi Das Ji: He was born in Benaras. He believed in the oneness of God and told all the people that God is present everywhere. He lives in the hearts of all. He emphasized the recital of God’s name and the purity of mind. He repudiated idol worship, pilgrimage, fast, and casteism. Being impressed with true devotion towards God, many people became his disciples.

Chaitanya: He was a great saint of the Bhakti Movement. He was born in village Nadia in Bengal in the year 1486. He believed in the worship of God whom he called Krishna. He criticized the caste system and gave the message of mutual love and fraternity. He started the tradition of Kirtan. He preached the Vaishnava seat in Bengal, Assam, and Orissa.

4. Art and Architecture of India During the Medieval Period. 

Ans: The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian architecture. They brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into being developed in The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. During the Mughal period, the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built.

Main features of the Islamic architecture:

The distinctive features of the Islamic architecture are seen in the standardized architecture of the mosque and the mausoleum. The mosque consisted of a large, rectangular open courtyard. rounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. There were many minarets in some mosques.

The arch in the gateway and other places was another character-istic feature. The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture white The Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. The two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.

Architecture under the Sultanate:

The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar are the most renowned monuments of India. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and built the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the building.

The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive. The regional kingdoms in Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmir developed their own distinctive styles of architecture.

The Mughal Architecture:

The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals. Babur and Humayun erected a number of buildings with the help of Persian architects but those were not very impressive.

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first important building of Akbar’s reign is Humayun’s tomb at Delhi.

The two significant features of the Mughal architecture are the large gateways and the placements of the building in the midst of a large park are evident here. Akbar also built forts at Agra and Lahore. The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in a variety of styles. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 metres high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti is built in white marble. The palace of Jodha Bai was built in the style of ancient Indian architecture.

During the reign of Jahangir, the mausoleum of Akbar was constructed at Sikandra which was inspired by the Buddhist viharas. After a long time, the minor building became architecturally significant here. Shah Jahan was the greatest of the Mughal builders. His reign marks the highest development of Mughal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country were built during his time. The list of Shah Jahan’s buildings is very large. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan’s buildings is the Taj Mahal built in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Delhi.

The new style of architecture had a significant influence on the construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of the Rajputs during this period.

5. Notes on the History of Mughal Architecture?

Ans: During the Afghan period the mausoleum of Sher Shah was built at Sasaram, It stands in the middle of a tank. The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first building of Akbar’s period is Humayun’s tomb at Delhi. The tomb is influenced by Persion style.

In the construction of the dome, use of bricks and glazed tiles. show the persian influence. The Indian builders of the tomb used stone and marble. The significant features of the Mughal architecture. ture are the large gateways and the tomb built in the midst of a large Park.

Akbar also built forts at Agra and Lahore. Living beings, elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured. Akbar’s new capital Fatehpur Sikri was one of the most magnificent capitals in the world. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 metres high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world.

The tomb of Salim Chishti has been built in white marble. Its beauty is in its screen and cutting work. The Palace of Jodha Bai was built in the style of ancient Indian architecture. Akbar also built Birbal’s palace with beautiful patterns and sculpture. He built Ibadat Khana or the house of worship. Here learned people of various religions gathered for the discussion of philosophy and theology in the presence of the Emperor. A building called Panch Mahal, a five storeyed building, was built perhaps modelled on Buddhist Viharas.

During the period of Jahangir the mausoleum of Akbar was built at Sikandra. The minar was the main feature of this building. It has beautiful arches and domes. Noor Jahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-daula (Her father). It was built in white marble and beautiful coloured inlay work was done. Noor Jahan also built the mausoleum of Jahangir (her husband) at Shahdara near Lahore.

The greatest builder of the Mughal period was Shah Jahan. He built a large number of buildings in The Agra Fort, the city of Shahjahanabad and the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid at Delhi and The Taj Mahal The Diwan-i-aam and the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort are built mainly in white marble with coloured inlay work. The Diwan-i-khas and the Diwan-i-aam in the Red Fort are richly deco-rated.

The Jama Masjid at Delhi with its imposing domes and minarets is the most famous mosque in the country. The Taj Mahal is built in the memory of his wife Mumtaj Mahal. It has been aptly described as ‘the dream in marble’. Its main features are the gateways, the central dome, the elegant minars, and the inlay work in coloured marbles and stones, the lovely gardens surrounding it and fountains in front of the building. Aurangzeb built the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Delhi.

6. How did the idea of bhakti emerge?

Ans: Bhakti, that is devotion, was born of worship. Worship was nothing but an expression of theism which meant belief in the existence of God.

In Upanishad Brahma has been described as the God. However, in the post-Vedic period theism manifested itself in the worship of the prevalent folk deities like serpentine (naga), demon (yaksha). etc.

It was this worship that lay behind bhakti. This bhakti attracted the attention of the common people. For, to them it was not possible to perform the rituals that became the most important part in the performance of religion.

7. Short essay on Bhakti Movement?

Ans: Bhakti means devotion to God. The Bhakti cult advocated the worship of a personal God and pure love, devotion and complete surrender to Him. According to Bhakti reformers, God is one and should worship Him alone. Devotion to God and faith in Him leads to salvation.

The true Guru helps in realizing God and getting salvation. It discards caste-distinction, image worship and worship of many gods.It puts much emphasis on good actions.

Some important bhakti preachers:

Shankaracharya:

A Nambudri Brahman from Malabar originally a worshipper of Shiva, inspired by Upanishad founded the four Maths in four direc-tions. He is known today as Savior of modern Hinduism and also founding father of Bhakti movement.

Ramanuja:

He was one of the greatest reformers of the Bhakti movement. He was born near Chennai. He advised his followers to worship Vishnu with full devotion. He preached his gospel in south India in the 12th century.

Ramananda:

He was the first prominent preacher of the Bhakti movement in north India. He was a worshiper of Rama and Sita.

Namadeva:

He was born in Maharashtra. He believed in unity of God and no idol worship. According to him, salvation can be attained through love of God.

Kabir:

He was the most popular of all the Bhakti saints. He made efforts to foster a spirit of harmony between Hinduism and Islam, his followers were a disciple of Ramananda and passed his days in Banaras. He laid great stress on the equality of man. His “Dohas” contain his teachings and they are sung with great devotion even today.

Chaitanya:

He was born in a learned Brahmin family in Nadia and Muslim in Bengal. He was regarded by his followers as an incarnation of Vishnu or Krishna. He revived the Krishna cult.

Mira:

A Rajput princess married to Rana Sanga’s eldest son Bhojraj who died a premature death. She was a great devotee of Krishna.

Ramdas:

Revered teacher of Shivaji inculcated the spirit of his time. His nationalism among his followers. His philosophy is mentioned in his own monumental work Dasa Buddha.

Saint Tukaram:

He was from Maharashtra. He laid main emphasis on attaining salvation through devotion.

Gyaneshwar:

Saint Gyaneshwar was born in Maharashtra and his activities were confined to Maharashtra. He translated Gita into Marathi.

Raidasa:

Raidasa was one of the followers of Ramananda. He did not differentiate between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Surdasa:

He was from Agra. He was a blind poet. He was a great devotee of Krishna. His literature is full of devotions of one and we Krishna.

Guru Nanak:

The credit to make the Bhakti movement in Punjab goes to Guru Nanak. He was the founder of Sikh religion and first Guru.

He tried to patch up the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims.

8. Short Essay on The Bhakti and Sufi Movement?

Ans: The Bhakti Movement: The Bhakti Movement stressed on the mystical union of the individual with God. The real development of the movement took place in south India between the 7th and 12th centuries.

The ideas of ‘bhakti’ were carried to the north by scholars like Namdeva (14th centuries) and Ramananda (14th century). The ideas were taken up by Kabir and Nanak, who made a strong plea for Hindu-Muslim unity.

The Bhakti Movement in north India also developed around the worship of Rama and Krishna, Chaitanya being its best known exponent.

The Sufi Movement: Sufi mystic orders arose in the 10th century. They laid great emphasis on love and devotion as the bond between God and the individual soul.

Around this time, the sufis were organised into 12 orders of silsilas and these were broadly divided into two: Ba-shara (those who followed the Islamic law) and Be-shara (those who were not bound by Islamic law).

The two orders which acquired importance in India were the Chisti and Surhawardi silsilahs. The most famous of the Chisti saints were Nizam-ud-Din Auliya and Nasir-ud-Din Chirag-i-Delhi.

9. What were the essential features of the Bhakti Movement?

Ans: The leaders of the Bhakti Movement of the eleven-twelfth centuries were mostly Hindus. The liberal Bhakti Cult emphasized simple devotion and faith as the means of salvation for one and all. To the exponents of the Bhakti Cult ritualism and formalities of religion are meaningless.

According to them, the sole object of religion was to unite with God. There are many points of similarities between Sufism and the Bhakti Cult.

Yet unlike the Sufis, the Bhakti saints did not remain aloof and isolated from the people. Rather the Bhakti saints preferred to stay amidst people, preaching their ideas in local vernacular language.

This was the reason why the Bhakti Movement gained popular-ity, particularly with the people belonging to the lowest rung of the social ladder

10. What was the significance of the Bhakti movement?

Ans: The significance of the Bhakti movement was as follows:

Firstly, the Bhakti saints preferred to stay amidst people.

Secondly, the Bhakti saints’ popularity may be explained by this.

Thirdly, the Bhakti saints used to preach their idea in local Vernacular.

This was the reason for the advancement of the vernacular language. Fourthly, the Bhakti saints attacked the class-distinction in the Hindu society.

They also said that religion does not stand in the way of man’s salvation. Fifthly, the Bhakti movement helped the Hindus and Muslims to come closer.

For, they selected their disciples both from the Hindus and Muslims. Sixthly, the Bhakti movement also made positive contri-bution to the regeneration of the womenfolk.

11. What are the results of the Bhakti Movement?

Ans: The Bhakti Movement led to significant results:

Firstly, there was widespread religious upheaval. However, Kabir, Nanak and Chaitanya were its chief exponents; there were several other preach-ers to play part in it. Saints like Ramananda, Vallabhacharya, and Namadeva left a large following. The movement covered all parts of India, north and south. Thus it developed an all-India base.

Secondly, the Bhakti Movement was not a movement of the wise few, but of the wider mass. It is said that after Buddhism, the Bhakti cult saw the next most popular religious awakening. Since it touched the people of all sections, its effect was lasting. The most ignorant could think of getting God by uttering His Name.

Thirdly, the movement provided incentive for social reforms in Hindu society. The caste system became less rigid. Social differences got reduced. Hatred of man for man received a severe blow. A sense of social unity developed. Orthodox religious practices lost merit. Religion received a simpler form. Devotion gave an easier meaning to it.

Fourthly, the distance between Islam and Hinduism got reduced. Instead of quarreling over outer things, Hindu and Muslims under-stood the inner meaning of their religions. While the Hindus paid respect to the Muslim Saints, the Muslims enjoyed the Hindu ceremonies. A new cult, famous as the cult of Satya Pir, appeared. It was founded by King Husain Shah of Jaunpur. Both Hindus and Muslims worship the Satya Pir. This kind of harmony and Hindu-Muslim unity prepared the ground for as liberal political era under the great Mughals.

Finally, the Bhakti Movement resulted in a great literary wave. The preachers did not preach in Sanskrit, but in the mother tongues of the common people. Thus, everywhere local languages began to develop. New devotional books were written in local languages. Ramananda and Kabir preached and wrote in Hindi. Nanak and his followers taught and wrote in Punjabi. Chaitanya disciples developed Bengali literature. Similarly, other preachers wrote in Marathi, Maithili and Braja Bhasa, etc. the regional languages began to develop rapidly because of the need for the Bhakti literature.

For all these reasons, the medieval Bhakti Movement forms a significant chapter of Indian history.

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